文章目录
Preface
参考摘录于FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS NOTES——Mr. Andrew Pinchuck
1 Linear Spaces
1.1 linear space
A linear space over a field
F
\mathbb{F}
F is a nonempty set
X
X
X with two operations,
F
\mathbb{F}
F denote either
R
\mathbb{R}
R or
C
\mathbb{C}
C
+
:
X
×
X
→
X
(
+: X \times X \rightarrow X \quad(
+:X×X→X( called addition
)
,
),
), and
⋅
\Large \cdot
⋅
:
F
×
X
→
X
: \mathbb{F} \times X \rightarrow X \quad
:F×X→X (called multiplication)
satisfying the following properties:
[
1
]
x
+
y
∈
X
[1] x+y \in X
[1]x+y∈X whenever
x
,
y
∈
X
x, y \in X
x,y∈X
[2]
x
+
y
=
y
+
x
x+y=y+x
x+y=y+x for all
x
,
y
∈
X
x, y \in X
x,y∈X
[3] There exists a unique element in
X
,
X,
X, denoted by 0 , such that
x
+
0
=
0
+
x
=
x
x+0=0+x=x
x+0=0+x=x for all
x
∈
X
x \in X
x∈X;
[4] Associated with each
x
∈
X
x \in X
x∈X is a unique element in
X
,
X,
X, denoted by
−
x
,
-x,
−x, such that
x
+
(
−
x
)
=
x+(-x)=
x+(−x)=
−
x
+
x
=
0
-x+x=0
−x+x=0
[5]
(
x
+
y
)
+
z
=
x
+
(
y
+
z
)
(x+y)+z=x+(y+z)
(x+y)+z=x+(y+z) for all
x
,
y
,
z
∈
X
x, y, z \in X
x,y,z∈X
[6]
α
⋅
x
∈
X
\alpha \cdot x \in X
α⋅x∈X for all
x
∈
X
x \in X
x∈X and for all
α
∈
F
\alpha \in \mathbb{F}
α∈F
[
7
]
α
⋅
(
x
+
y
)
=
α
⋅
x
+
α
⋅
y
[7] \alpha \cdot(x+y)=\alpha \cdot x+\alpha \cdot y
[7]α⋅(x+y)=α⋅x+α⋅y for all
x
,
y
∈
X
x, y \in X
x,y∈X and all
α
∈
F
\alpha \in \mathbb{F}
α∈F
[
8
]
(
α
+
β
)
⋅
x
=
α
⋅
x
+
β
⋅
x
[8](\alpha+\beta) \cdot x=\alpha \cdot x+\beta \cdot x
[8](α+β)⋅x=α⋅x+β⋅x for all
x
∈
X
x \in X
x∈X and all
α
,
β
∈
F
\alpha, \beta \in \mathbb{F}
α,β∈F
[
9
]
(
α
β
)
⋅
x
=
α
⋅
(
β
⋅
x
)
[9](\alpha \beta) \cdot x=\alpha \cdot(\beta \cdot x)
[9](αβ)⋅x=α⋅(β⋅x) for all
x
∈
X
x \in X
x∈X and all
α
,
β
∈
F
\alpha, \beta \in \mathbb{F}
α,β∈F
[
10
]
1
⋅
x
=
x
[10] 1 \cdot x=x
[10]1⋅x=x for all
x
∈
X
x \in X
x∈X
representation:
(
X
,
F
,
+
,
⋅
)
(X, \mathbb{F},+, \cdot)
(X,F,+,⋅)
then a linear space is also called a vector space and its elements are called vectors
Examples
[1] Let
X
=
C
[
a
,
b
]
=
{
x
:
[
a
,
b
]
→
F
∣
x
X=\mathcal{C}[a, b]=\{x:[a, b] \rightarrow \mathbb{F} \mid x
X=C[a,b]={x:[a,b]→F∣x is continuous }. Define the operations of addition and scalar multiplication pointwise: For all
x
,
y
∈
X
x, y \in X
x,y∈X and all
α
∈
R
,
\alpha \in \mathbb{R},
α∈R, define
(
x
+
y
)
(
t
)
=
x
(
t
)
+
y
(
t
)
and
(
α
⋅
x
)
(
t
)
=
α
x
(
t
)
}
for all
t
∈
[
a
,
b
]
\left.\begin{array}{ll} (x+y)(t) & =x(t)+y(t) \text { and } \\ (\alpha \cdot x)(t) & =\alpha x(t) \end{array}\right\} \text { for all } t \in[a, b]
(x+y)(t)(α⋅x)(t)=x(t)+y(t) and =αx(t)} for all t∈[a,b]
Then
C
[
a
,
b
]
\mathcal{C}[a, b]
C[a,b] is a real vector space.
Sequence: Informally, a sequence in
X
X
X is a list of numbers indexed by
N
.
\mathbb{N} .
N. Equivalently, a sequence in
X
X
X is a function
x
:
N
→
X
x: \mathbb{N} \rightarrow X
x:N→X given by
n
↦
x
(
n
)
=
x
n
.
n \mapsto x(n)=x_{n} .
n↦x(n)=xn. We shall denote a sequence
x
1
,
x
2
,
…
x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots
x1,x2,… by
x
=
(
x
1
,
x
2
,
…
)
=
(
x
n
)
1
∞
x=\left(x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots\right)=\left(x_{n}\right)_{1}^{\infty}
x=(x1,x2,…)=(xn)1∞
[2] The sequence space s. Let s denote the set of all sequences
x
=
(
x
n
)
1
∞
x=\left(x_{n}\right)_{1}^{\infty}
x=(xn)1∞ of real or complex numbers. Define the operations of addition and scalar multiplication pointwise: For all
x
=
x=
x=
(
x
1
,
x
2
,
…
)
,
y
=
(
y
1
,
y
2
,
…
)
∈
s
\left(x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots\right), y=\left(y_{1}, y_{2}, \ldots\right) \in \mathbf{s}
(x1,x2,…),y=(y1,y2,…)∈s and all
α
∈
F
,
\alpha \in \mathbb{F},
α∈F, define
x
+
y
=
(
x
1
+
y
1
,
x
2
+
y
2
,
…
)
α
⋅
x
=
(
α
x
1
,
α
x
2
,
…
)
\begin{aligned} x+y &=\left(x_{1}+y_{1}, x_{2}+y_{2}, \ldots\right) \\ \alpha \cdot x &=\left(\alpha x_{1}, \alpha x_{2}, \ldots\right) \end{aligned}
x+yα⋅x=(x1+y1,x2+y2,…)=(αx1,αx2,…)
Then
s
\mathbf{s}
s is a linear space over
F
\mathbb{F}
F.
[3] The sequence space
ℓ
∞
.
\ell_{\infty} .
ℓ∞. Let
ℓ
∞
=
ℓ
∞
(
N
)
\ell_{\infty}=\ell_{\infty}(\mathbb{N})
ℓ∞=ℓ∞(N) denote the set of all bounded sequences of real or complex numbers. That is, all sequences
x
=
(
x
n
)
1
∞
x=\left(x_{n}\right)_{1}^{\infty}
x=(xn)1∞ such that
sup
i
∈
N
∣
x
i
∣
<
∞
\sup _{i \in \mathbb{N}}\left|x_{i}\right|<\infty
i∈Nsup∣xi∣<∞
Define the operations of addition and scalar multiplication pointwise as in [2]. Then
ℓ
∞
\ell_{\infty}
ℓ∞ is a linear space over
F
\mathbb{F}
F.
[4] The sequence space
ℓ
p
=
ℓ
p
(
N
)
,
1
≤
p
<
∞
\ell_{p}=\ell_{p}(\mathbb{N}), \quad 1 \leq p<\infty
ℓp=ℓp(N),1≤p<∞. Let
ℓ
p
\ell_{p}
ℓp denote the set of all sequences
x
=
(
x
n
)
1
∞
x=\left(x_{n}\right)_{1}^{\infty}
x=(xn)1∞ of real or complex numbers satisfying the condition
∑
i
=
1
∞
∣
x
i
∣
p
<
∞
\sum_{i=1}^{\infty}\left|x_{i}\right|^{p}<\infty
i=1∑∞∣xi∣p<∞
Define the operations of addition and scalar multiplication pointwise: For all
x
=
(
x
n
)
,
y
=
x=\left(x_{n}\right), y=
x=(xn),y=
(
y
n
)
\left(y_{n}\right)
(yn) in
ℓ
p
\ell_{p}
ℓp and all
α
∈
F
,
\alpha \in \mathbb{F},
α∈F, define
x
+
y
=
(
x
1
+
y
1
,
x
2
+
y
2
,
…
)
α
⋅
x
=
(
α
x
1
,
α
x
2
,
…
)
\begin{aligned} x+y &=\left(x_{1}+y_{1}, x_{2}+y_{2}, \ldots\right) \\ \alpha \cdot x &=\left(\alpha x_{1}, \alpha x_{2}, \ldots\right) \end{aligned}
x+yα⋅x=(x1+y1,x2+y2,…)=(αx1,αx2,…)
[5] The sequence space
c
=
c
(
N
)
\mathbf{c}=\mathbf{c}(\mathbb{N})
c=c(N). Let
c
\mathbf{c}
c denote the set of all convergent sequences
x
=
(
x
n
)
1
∞
x=\left(x_{n}\right)_{1}^{\infty}
x=(xn)1∞ of real or complex numbers. That is,
c
\mathbf{c}
c is the set of all sequences
x
=
(
x
n
)
1
∞
x=\left(x_{n}\right)_{1}^{\infty}
x=(xn)1∞ such that
lim
n
→
∞
x
n
\lim _{n \rightarrow \infty} x_{n}
limn→∞xn exists. Define the operations of addition and scalar multiplication pointwise as in [2]. Then
c
\mathbf{c}
c is a linear space over
F
\mathbb{F}
F.
[6] The sequence space c 0 = c 0 ( N ) . \mathbf{c}_{0}=\mathbf{c}_{0}(\mathbb{N}) . c0=c0(N). Let c 0 \mathbf{c}_{0} c0 denote the set of all sequences x = ( x n ) 1 ∞ x=\left(x_{n}\right)_{1}^{\infty} x=(xn)1∞ of real or complex numbers which converge to zero. That is, c 0 \mathbf{c}_{0} c0 is the space of all sequences x = ( x n ) 1 ∞ x=\left(x_{n}\right)_{1}^{\infty} x=(xn)1∞ such that lim n → ∞ x n = 0. \lim _{n \rightarrow \infty} x_{n}=0 . limn→∞xn=0. Define the operations of addition and scalar multiplication pointwise as in example (3). Then c 0 \mathbf{c}_{0} c0 is a linear space over F \mathbb{F} F.
[7] The sequence space ℓ 0 = ℓ 0 ( N ) . \ell_{0}=\ell_{0}(\mathbb{N}) . ℓ0=ℓ0(N). Let ℓ 0 \ell_{0} ℓ0 denote the set of all sequences x = ( x n ) 1 ∞ x=\left(x_{n}\right)_{1}^{\infty} x=(xn)1∞ of real or complex numbers such that x i = 0 x_{i}=0 xi=0 for all but finitely many indices i i i. Define the operations of addition and scalar multiplication pointwise as in example (3). Then ℓ 0 \ell_{0} ℓ0 is a linear space over F \mathbb{F} F.
1.2 Subsets of a linear space
Notation
Let
X
X
X be a linear space over
F
,
x
∈
X
\mathbb{F}, x \in X
F,x∈X and
A
A
A and
B
B
B subsets of
X
X
X and
λ
∈
F
\lambda \in \mathbb{F}
λ∈F. We shall denote by
x
+
A
:
=
{
x
+
a
:
a
∈
A
}
A
+
B
:
=
{
a
+
b
:
a
∈
A
,
b
∈
B
}
λ
A
:
=
{
λ
a
:
a
∈
A
}
\begin{aligned} x+A &:=\{x+a: a \in A\} \\ A+B &:=\{a+b: a \in A, b \in B\} \\ \lambda A &:=\{\lambda a: a \in A\} \end{aligned}
x+AA+BλA:={x+a:a∈A}:={a+b:a∈A,b∈B}:={λa:a∈A}
1.3 Subspaces and Convex Sets
Subspaces
A subset
M
M
M of a linear space
X
X
X is called a linear subspace of
X
X
X if
(a)
x
+
y
∈
M
x+y \in M
x+y∈M for all
x
,
y
∈
M
,
x, y \in M,
x,y∈M, and
(b)
λ
x
∈
M
\lambda x \in M
λx∈M for all
x
∈
M
x \in M
x∈M and for all
λ
∈
F
\lambda \in \mathbb{F}
λ∈F.
Clearly, a subset
M
M
M of a linear space
X
X
X is a linear subspace if and only if
M
+
M
⊂
M
M+M \subset M
M+M⊂M and
λ
M
⊂
M
\lambda M \subset M
λM⊂M for all
λ
∈
F
\lambda \in \mathbb{F}
λ∈F.
Then Every linear space X X X has at least two distinguished subspaces: M = { 0 } M=\{0\} M={0} and M = X M=X M=X. These are called the improper subspaces of X . X . X. All other subspaces of X X X are called the proper subspaces.
linear hull
Let
K
K
K be a subset of a linear space
X
.
X .
X. The linear hull of
K
,
K,
K, denoted by
lin
(
K
)
\operatorname{lin}(K)
lin(K) or
span
(
K
)
,
\operatorname{span}(K),
span(K), is the intersection of all linear subspaces of
X
X
X that contain
K
K
K.
The linear hull of
K
K
K is also called the linear subspace of
X
X
X spanned (or generated) by
K
K
K.
It is easy to check that the intersection of a collection of linear subspaces of
X
X
X is a linear subspace of
X
.
X .
X. It therefore follows that the linear hull of a subset
K
K
K of a linear space
X
X
X is again a linear subspace of
X
.
X .
X.
In fact, the linear hull of a subset
K
K
K of a linear space
X
X
X is the smallest linear subspace of
X
X
X which contains
K
K
K
(实际上,X的子集K的线性包是线性空间X的包含K的最小线性子空间)
proposition
Let
K
K
K be a subset of a linear space
X
.
X .
X. Then the linear hull of
K
K
K is the set of all finite linear combinations of elements of
K
.
K .
K. That is,
lin
(
K
)
=
{
∑
j
=
1
n
λ
j
x
j
∣
x
1
,
x
2
,
…
,
x
n
∈
K
,
λ
1
,
λ
2
,
…
,
λ
n
∈
F
,
n
∈
N
}
\operatorname{lin}(K)=\left\{\sum_{j=1}^{n} \lambda_{j} x_{j} \mid x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots, x_{n} \in K, \lambda_{1}, \lambda_{2}, \ldots, \lambda_{n} \in \mathbb{F}, n \in \mathbb{N}\right\}
lin(K)={j=1∑nλjxj∣x1,x2,…,xn∈K,λ1,λ2,…,λn∈F,n∈N}
Other Definition
[1]A subset K K K of a linear space X X X is said to be linearly independent if every finite subset { x 1 , x 2 , … , x n } \left\{x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots, x_{n}\right\} {x1,x2,…,xn} of K K K is linearly independent.
[2]If { x 1 , x 2 , … , x n } \left\{x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots, x_{n}\right\} {x1,x2,…,xn} is a linearly independent subset of X X X and X = lin { x 1 , x 2 , … , x n } , \bold {X=\operatorname{lin}\left\{x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots, x_{n}\right\},} X=lin{x1,x2,…,xn}, then X X X is said to have dimension n . n . n. In this case we say that { x 1 , x 2 , … , x n } \left\{x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots, x_{n}\right\} {x1,x2,…,xn} is a basis for the linear space X . X . X. If a linear space X X X does not have a finite basis, we say that it is infinitedimensional.
Convex Sets
Let
K
K
K be a subset of a linear space
X
.
X .
X. We say that
(a)
K
K
K is convex if
λ
x
+
(
1
−
λ
)
y
∈
K
\lambda x+(1-\lambda) y \in K
λx+(1−λ)y∈K whenever
x
,
y
∈
K
x, y \in K
x,y∈K and
λ
∈
[
0
,
1
]
\lambda \in[0,1]
λ∈[0,1]
(b)
K
K
K is balanced if
λ
x
∈
K
\lambda x \in K
λx∈K whenever
x
∈
K
x \in K
x∈K and
∣
λ
∣
≤
1
|\lambda| \leq 1
∣λ∣≤1;
(c)
K
K
K is absolutely convex if
K
K
K is convex and balanced.
Convex hull
Let S S S be a subset of the linear space X . X . X. The convex hull of S , S, S, denoted co ( S ) , \operatorname{co}(S), co(S), is the intersection of all convex sets in X X X which contain S S S.
Since the intersection of convex sets is convex, it follows that
co
(
S
)
\operatorname{co}(S)
co(S) is the smallest convex set which contains
S
S
S.
(实际上,X子集S的凸包是X中包含S最小的凸包)
proposition
Let
S
S
S be a nonempty subset of a linear space
X
.
X .
X. Then
co
(
S
)
\operatorname{co}(S)
co(S) is the set of all convex combinations of elements of
S
.
S .
S. That is,
co
(
S
)
=
{
∑
j
=
1
n
λ
j
x
j
∣
x
1
,
x
2
,
…
,
x
n
∈
S
,
λ
j
≥
0
∀
j
=
1
,
2
,
…
,
n
,
∑
j
=
1
n
λ
j
=
1
,
n
∈
N
}
\operatorname{co}(S)=\left\{\sum_{j=1}^{n} \lambda_{j} x_{j} \mid x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots, x_{n} \in S, \lambda_{j} \geq 0 \forall j=1,2, \ldots, n, \sum_{j=1}^{n} \lambda_{j}=1, n \in \mathbb{N}\right\}
co(S)={j=1∑nλjxj∣x1,x2,…,xn∈S,λj≥0∀j=1,2,…,n,j=1∑nλj=1,n∈N}
Remark
[1]
K
K
K is absolutely convex if and only if
λ
x
+
μ
y
∈
K
\lambda x+\mu y \in K
λx+μy∈K whenever
x
,
y
∈
K
x, y \in K
x,y∈K and
∣
λ
∣
+
∣
μ
∣
≤
1
|\lambda|+|\mu| \leq 1
∣λ∣+∣μ∣≤1
[2] Every linear subspace is absolutely convex.
(每个线性子空间都是绝对凸的)
1.4 Quotient Space
equivalence relation
-
A relation R \mathcal{R} R on a set X X X is any subset R \mathcal{R} R of the product X × X , X \times X, X×X, i.e., R \mathcal{R} R consists of specific ordered pairs ( x , y ) , (x, y), (x,y), with x ∈ X x \in X x∈X and y ∈ X y \in X y∈X
-
An equivalence relation on X X X is a relation R \mathcal{R} R that satisfies the following properties, where the notation x ∼ y x \sim y x∼y means that ( x , y ) ∈ R (x, y) \in \mathcal{R} (x,y)∈R :
reflexivity : x ∼ x \quad x \sim x x∼x for all x ∈ X x \in X x∈Xsymmetry : x ∼ y \quad x \sim y x∼y implies y ∼ x y \sim x y∼x
transitivity : x ∼ y x \sim y x∼y and y ∼ z y \sim z y∼z implies x ∼ z x \sim z x∼z
Equivalently, ( x , x ) ∈ R (x, x) \in \mathcal{R} (x,x)∈R for all x ∈ X ; x \in X ; x∈X; if ( x , y ) ∈ R , (x, y) \in \mathcal{R}, (x,y)∈R, then ( y , x ) ∈ R ; (y, x) \in \mathcal{R} ; (y,x)∈R; if ( x , y ) ∈ R (x, y) \in \mathcal{R} (x,y)∈R and ( y , z ) ∈ R , (y, z) \in \mathcal{R}, (y,z)∈R, then ( x , z ) ∈ R (x, z) \in \mathcal{R} (x,z)∈R
(等价关系就是满足上面三个状态的有序状态对(x,y))
Definition
Let
M
M
M be a linear subspace of a linear space
X
X
X over
F
\mathbb{F}
F. For all
x
,
y
∈
X
,
x, y \in X,
x,y∈X, define
x
≡
y
(
m
o
d
M
)
⟺
x
−
y
∈
M
x \equiv y(\bmod M) \Longleftrightarrow x-y \in M
x≡y(modM)⟺x−y∈M
≡
\equiv
≡ defines an equivalence relation on
X
X
X
then For
x
∈
X
,
x \in X,
x∈X, denote by
[
x
]
:
=
{
y
∈
X
:
x
≡
y
(
m
o
d
M
)
}
=
{
y
∈
X
:
x
−
y
∈
M
}
=
x
+
M
[x]:=\{y \in X: x \equiv y(\bmod M)\}=\{y \in X: x-y \in M\}=x+M
[x]:={y∈X:x≡y(modM)}={y∈X:x−y∈M}=x+M
the coset of
x
x
x with respect to
M
M
M.
[商空间定义在介里]The quotient space
X
/
M
X / M
X/M consists of all the equivalence classes
[
x
]
[x]
[x],
x
∈
X
.
x \in X .
x∈X. The quotient space is also called a factor space. moreover,quotient space is also a linear space.
(商空间包含了所有的等价类[x],[x]其实是满足mod规则的一个集合,集合元素属于X。而且mod运算是X作用于它的一个线性空间上的)详情点击介里~
[商空间的维度定义在介里]The codimension of
M
M
M in
X
X
X is defined as the dimension of the quotient space
X
/
M
.
X / M .
X/M. It is denoted by
codim
(
M
)
=
dim
(
X
/
M
)
\operatorname{codim}(M)=\operatorname{dim}(X / M)
codim(M)=dim(X/M).
Clearly, if
X
=
M
,
X=M,
X=M, then
X
/
M
=
{
0
}
X / M=\{0\}
X/M={0} and so
codim
(
X
)
=
0
\operatorname{codim}(X)=0
codim(X)=0
Proposition
Let
M
M
M be a linear subspace of a linear space
X
X
X over
F
.
\mathbb{F} .
F. For
x
,
y
∈
X
x, y \in X
x,y∈X and
λ
∈
F
,
\lambda \in \mathbb{F},
λ∈F, define the operations
[
x
]
+
[
y
]
=
[
x
+
y
]
and
λ
⋅
[
x
]
=
[
λ
⋅
x
]
[x]+[y]=[x+y] \text { and } \lambda \cdot[x]=[\lambda \cdot x]
[x]+[y]=[x+y] and λ⋅[x]=[λ⋅x]
Then
X
/
M
X / M
X/M is a linear space with respect to these operations.
Remark
zero element in the quotient space is the M.
1.5 Direct Sums and Projections
Direct Sums
Let
M
M
M and
N
N
N be linear subspaces of a linear space
X
X
X over
F
\mathbb{F}
F. We say that
X
X
X is a direct sum of
M
M
M and
N
N
N if
X
=
M
+
N
and
M
∩
N
=
{
0
}
X=M+N \text { and } M \cap N=\{0\}
X=M+N and M∩N={0}
If
X
X
X is a direct sum of
M
M
M and
N
,
N,
N, we write
X
=
M
⊕
N
.
X=M \oplus N .
X=M⊕N. In this case, we say that
M
M
M (resp.
N
N
N ) is an algebraic complement of
N
N
N (resp.
M
M
M ). moreover,for each x,the representation is unique.
projection
Let M M M and N N N be linear subspaces of a linear space X X X over F \mathbb{F} F such that X = M ⊕ N . X=M \oplus N . X=M⊕N. Define P : X → X P: X \rightarrow X P:X→X by P ( x ) = m , P(x)=m, P(x)=m, where x = m + n , x=m+n, x=m+n, with m ∈ M m \in M m∈M and n ∈ N . n \in N . n∈N. Then P P P is an algebraic projection of X X X onto M M M along N . N . N. Moreover M = P ( X ) M=P(X) M=P(X) and N = ( I − P ) ( X ) = ker ( P ) N=(I-P)(X)=\operatorname{ker}(P) N=(I−P)(X)=ker(P)
Linearity of
P
\mathbf{P}
P : Let
x
=
m
1
+
n
1
x=m_{1}+n_{1}
x=m1+n1 and
y
=
m
2
+
n
2
,
y=m_{2}+n_{2},
y=m2+n2, where
m
1
,
m
2
∈
M
m_{1}, m_{2} \in M
m1,m2∈M and
n
1
,
n
2
∈
N
.
n_{1}, n_{2} \in N .
n1,n2∈N. For
α
∈
F
\alpha \in \mathbb{F}
α∈F
P
(
α
x
+
y
)
=
P
(
(
α
m
1
+
m
2
)
+
(
α
n
1
+
n
2
)
)
=
α
m
1
+
m
2
=
α
P
x
+
P
y
P(\alpha x+y)=P\left(\left(\alpha m_{1}+m_{2}\right)+\left(\alpha n_{1}+n_{2}\right)\right)=\alpha m_{1}+m_{2}=\alpha P x+P y
P(αx+y)=P((αm1+m2)+(αn1+n2))=αm1+m2=αPx+Py
Idempotency of
P
:
\mathbf{P}:
P: Since
m
=
m
+
0
,
m=m+0,
m=m+0, with
m
∈
M
m \in M
m∈M and
0
∈
N
,
0 \in N,
0∈N, we have that
P
m
=
m
P m=m
Pm=m and hence
P
2
x
=
P
m
=
m
‾
=
P
x
.
\overline{P^{2} x=P m=m}=P x .
P2x=Pm=m=Px. That is,
P
2
=
P
P^{2}=P
P2=P
Finally,
n
=
x
−
m
=
(
I
−
P
)
x
.
n=x-m=(I-P) x .
n=x−m=(I−P)x. Hence
N
=
(
I
−
P
)
(
X
)
.
N=(I-P)(X) .
N=(I−P)(X). Also,
P
x
=
0
P x=0
Px=0 if and only if
x
∈
N
,
x \in N,
x∈N, i.e.,
ker
(
P
)
=
N
\operatorname{ker}(P)=N
ker(P)=N
1.6 The Holder and Minkowski Inequalities
conjugate exponents and some Inequalities
Let p p p and q q q be positive real numbers. If 1 < p < ∞ 1<p<\infty 1<p<∞ and 1 p + 1 q = 1 , \frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}=1, p1+q1=1, or if p = 1 p=1 p=1 and q = ∞ , q=\infty, q=∞, or if p = ∞ p=\infty p=∞ and q = 1 , q=1, q=1, then we say that p p p and q q q are conjugate exponents.
Lemma (Young’s Inequality). Let
p
p
p and
q
q
q be conjugate exponents, with
1
<
p
,
q
<
∞
1<p, q<\infty
1<p,q<∞ and
α
,
β
≥
0.
\alpha, \beta \geq 0 .
α,β≥0. Then
α
β
≤
α
p
p
+
β
q
q
\alpha \beta \leq \frac{\alpha^{p}}{p}+\frac{\beta^{q}}{q}
αβ≤pαp+qβq
Holder Inequalities
(Hölder’s Inequality for sequences). Let
(
x
n
)
∈
ℓ
p
\left(x_{n}\right) \in \ell_{p}
(xn)∈ℓp and
(
y
n
)
∈
ℓ
q
,
\left(y_{n}\right) \in \ell_{q},
(yn)∈ℓq, where
p
>
1
p>1
p>1 and
1
/
p
+
1
/
q
=
1
1 / p+1 / q=1
1/p+1/q=1. Then
∑
k
=
1
∞
∣
x
k
y
k
∣
≤
(
∑
k
=
1
∞
∣
x
k
∣
p
)
1
p
(
∑
k
=
1
∞
∣
y
k
∣
q
)
1
q
\sum_{k=1}^{\infty}\left|x_{k} y_{k}\right| \leq\left(\sum_{k=1}^{\infty}\left|x_{k}\right|^{p}\right)^{\frac{1}{p}}\left(\sum_{k=1}^{\infty}\left|y_{k}\right|^{q}\right)^{\frac{1}{q}}
k=1∑∞∣xkyk∣≤(k=1∑∞∣xk∣p)p1(k=1∑∞∣yk∣q)q1
Minkowski Inequalities
Theorem (Minkowski’s Inequality for sequences). Let
p
>
1
p>1
p>1 and
(
x
n
)
\left(x_{n}\right)
(xn) and
(
y
n
)
\left(y_{n}\right)
(yn) sequences in
ℓ
p
\ell_{p}
ℓp. Then
(
∑
k
=
1
∞
∣
x
k
+
y
k
∣
p
)
1
p
≤
(
∑
k
=
1
∞
∣
x
k
∣
p
)
1
p
+
(
∑
k
=
1
∞
∣
y
k
∣
p
)
1
p
\left(\sum_{k=1}^{\infty}\left|x_{k}+y_{k}\right|^{p}\right)^{\frac{1}{p}} \leq\left(\sum_{k=1}^{\infty}\left|x_{k}\right|^{p}\right)^{\frac{1}{p}}+\left(\sum_{k=1}^{\infty}\left|y_{k}\right|^{p}\right)^{\frac{1}{p}}
(k=1∑∞∣xk+yk∣p)p1≤(k=1∑∞∣xk∣p)p1+(k=1∑∞∣yk∣p)p1