（十 一）实对称二阶张量的（对角）标准形

1. 二阶张量的坐标转换关系与矩阵的相似/合同变换

任意二阶张量$\mathbf{T}$的坐标变换关系：
$$\begin{gathered} T^{mn}{\beta }_m^{i^{\prime }}{\beta }_n^{j^{\prime }}=T^{i^{\prime }{j}^{\prime }} \\ {T}_m^{\bullet n}{\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^m{\beta }_n^{j^{\prime }}=T_{i^{\prime }}^{\bullet j^{\prime }} \\ {T}_{\bullet n}^m{\beta }_m^{i^{\prime }}{\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^n=T_{\bullet j^{\prime }}^{i^{\prime }} \\ {T}_{mn}{\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^m{\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^n=T_{i^{\prime }{j}^{\prime }} \end{gathered}$$相应地写作矩阵的形式有：
$$\begin{gathered} \left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_1^{1^{\prime }}& {\beta }_2^{1^{\prime }}& {\beta }_3^{1^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ {\beta }_1^{2^{\prime }}& {\beta }_2^{2^{\prime }}& {\beta }_3^{2^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ {\beta }_1^{3^{\prime }}& {\beta }_2^{3^{\prime }}& {\beta }_3^{3^{\prime }}\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{T}^{11}& T^{12}& T^{13}\\ & & \\ T^{21}& T^{22}& T^{23}\\ & & \\ T^{31}& T^{32}& T^{33}\end{array}\right]{\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_1^{1^{\prime }}& {\beta }_2^{1^{\prime }}& {\beta }_3^{1^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ {\beta }_1^{2^{\prime }}& {\beta }_2^{2^{\prime }}& {\beta }_3^{2^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ {\beta }_1^{3^{\prime }}& {\beta }_2^{3^{\prime }}& {\beta }_3^{3^{\prime }}\end{array}\right]}^T=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{T}^{1^{\prime }{1}^{\prime }}& T^{1^{\prime }{2}^{\prime }}& T^{1^{\prime }{3}^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ T^{2^{\prime }{1}^{\prime }}& T^{2^{\prime }{2}^{\prime }}& T^{2^{\prime }{3}^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ T^{3^{\prime }{1}^{\prime }}& T^{3^{\prime }{2}^{\prime }}& T^{3^{\prime }{3}^{\prime }}\end{array}\right] \\ \left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_1^{1^{\prime }}& {\beta }_2^{1^{\prime }}& {\beta }_3^{1^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ {\beta }_1^{2^{\prime }}& {\beta }_2^{2^{\prime }}& {\beta }_3^{2^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ {\beta }_1^{3^{\prime }}& {\beta }_2^{3^{\prime }}& {\beta }_3^{3^{\prime }}\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{T}_1^{\bullet 1}& T_2^{\bullet 1}& T_3^{\bullet 1}\\ & & \\ T_1^{\bullet 2}& T_2^{\bullet 2}& T_3^{\bullet 2}\\ & & \\ T_1^{\bullet 3}& T_2^{\bullet 3}& T_3^{\bullet 3}\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{T}_{1^{\prime }}^{\bullet 1^{\prime }}& T_{2^{\prime }}^{\bullet 1^{\prime }}& T_{3^{\prime }}^{\bullet 1^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ T_{1^{\prime }}^{\bullet 2^{\prime }}& T_{2^{\prime }}^{\bullet 2^{\prime }}& T_{3^{\prime }}^{\bullet 2^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ T_{1^{\prime }}^{\bullet 3^{\prime }}& T_{2^{\prime }}^{\bullet 3^{\prime }}& T_{3^{\prime }}^{\bullet 3^{\prime }}\end{array}\right] \\ \left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_1^{1^{\prime }}& {\beta }_2^{1^{\prime }}& {\beta }_3^{1^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ {\beta }_1^{2^{\prime }}& {\beta }_2^{2^{\prime }}& {\beta }_3^{2^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ {\beta }_1^{3^{\prime }}& {\beta }_2^{3^{\prime }}& {\beta }_3^{3^{\prime }}\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{T}_{\bullet 1}^1& T_{\bullet 2}^1& T_{\bullet 3}^1\\ & & \\ T_{\bullet 1}^2& T_{\bullet 2}^2& T_{\bullet 3}^2\\ & & \\ T_{\bullet 1}^3& T_{\bullet 2}^3& T_{\bullet 3}^3\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{T}_{\bullet 1^{\prime }}^{1^{\prime }}& T_{\bullet 2^{\prime }}^{1^{\prime }}& T_{\bullet 3^{\prime }}^{1^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ T_{\bullet 1^{\prime }}^{2^{\prime }}& T_{\bullet 2^{\prime }}^{2^{\prime }}& T_{\bullet 3^{\prime }}^{2^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ T_{\bullet 1^{\prime }}^{3^{\prime }}& T_{\bullet 2^{\prime }}^{3^{\prime }}& T_{\bullet 3^{\prime }}^{3^{\prime }}\end{array}\right] \\ {\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]}^T\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{T}_{11}& T_{12}& T_{13}\\ & & \\ T_{21}& T_{22}& T_{23}\\ & & \\ T_{31}& T_{32}& T_{33}\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{T}_{1^{\prime }{1}^{\prime }}& T_{1^{\prime }{2}^{\prime }}& T_{1^{\prime }{3}^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ T_{2^{\prime }{1}^{\prime }}& T_{2^{\prime }{2}^{\prime }}& T_{2^{\prime }{3}^{\prime }}\\ & & \\ T_{3^{\prime }{1}^{\prime }}& T_{3^{\prime }{2}^{\prime }}& T_{3^{\prime }{3}^{\prime }}\end{array}\right] \end{gathered}$$另外，由于协变转换系数矩阵与逆变转换系数矩阵互逆且协、逆变转换系数矩阵一般不是正交矩阵。那么，张量分量的坐标变换关系对应于矩阵${\tau }_2、{\tau }_3$的相似变换（相似变换矩阵为协变转换系数矩阵）或者矩阵${\tau }_1、{\tau }_4$的合同变换（${\tau }_1$的合同变换矩阵为逆变转换系数矩阵的转置矩阵，${\tau }_4$的合同变换矩阵为协变转换系数矩阵）。

2. 实对称二阶张量的标准形

实对称二阶张量的${\tau }_1、{\tau }_4$矩阵为实对称矩阵，但${\tau }_2、{\tau }_3$矩阵一般不为对称矩阵。根据线性代数相关知识我们知道：实对称矩阵可正交合同/相似于对角阵，即
$${\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]}^T\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{T}_{11}& T_{12}& T_{13}\\ & & \\ T_{21}& T_{22}& T_{23}\\ & & \\ T_{31}& T_{32}& T_{33}\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{T}_{1^{\prime }{1}^{\prime }}& 0& 0\\ & & \\ 0& T_{2^{\prime }{2}^{\prime }}& 0\\ & & \\ 0& 0& T_{3^{\prime }{3}^{\prime }}\end{array}\right](1)$$且
$${\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]}^T\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]=E$$故，类比思考提出：
\qquad\qquad\qquad 实对称张量能否在某一坐标系（某组基）下满足仅对角元素不为零？
上述问题的回答是肯定的，下面予以讨论：
考虑实对称二阶张量$\mathbf{N}$在具有标准正交基的曲线坐标系（如笛卡尔坐标系）和其它任意坐标系之间的坐标转换关系：
$$\mathbf{N}=N_{mn}{\vec{g}}^m{\vec{g}}^n=N_{mn}({\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^m{\vec{g}}^{i^{\prime }})({\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^n{\vec{g}}^{j^{\prime }})=N_{mn}{\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^m{\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^n{\vec{g}}^{i^{\prime }}{\vec{g}}^{j^{\prime }}=N_{i^{\prime }{j}^{\prime }}{\vec{g}}^{i^{\prime }}{\vec{g}}^{j^{\prime }}$$其中， { g ⃗ 1 ， g ⃗ 2 ， g ⃗ 3 } \{\vec{g}^1，\vec{g}^2，\vec{g}^3\} {g ​1，g ​2，g ​3}为标准正交基。

现考虑能否在新的坐标系中仅对角元素（$N_{1^{\prime }{1}^{\prime }}、N_{2^{\prime }{2}^{\prime }}、N_{3^{\prime }{3}^{\prime }}$）非零？联系与坐标转换关系对应的矩阵形式，并且由于实对称张量对应的$N_4$为实对称矩阵，这意味着，必定存在某一特定坐标系使得实对称二阶张量的协变分量仅对角元素非零。根据坐标转换关系知这一坐标系的逆变基矢与原坐标系的逆变基矢存在如下关系：
$$\{\begin{array}{l}{\vec{g}}^1={\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1{\vec{g}}^{1^{\prime }}+{\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1{\vec{g}}^{2^{\prime }}+{\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1{\vec{g}}^{3^{\prime }}\\ \\ {\vec{g}}^2={\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2{\vec{g}}^{1^{\prime }}+{\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2{\vec{g}}^{2^{\prime }}+{\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2{\vec{g}}^{3^{\prime }}\\ \\ {\vec{g}}^3={\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3{\vec{g}}^{1^{\prime }}+{\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3{\vec{g}}^{2^{\prime }}+{\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3{\vec{g}}^{3^{\prime }}\end{array}$$又由于联系原坐标系与这一特定坐标系的协变转换系数对应的矩阵
$$\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]$$为正交矩阵，那么该阵的列向量组为标准正交组，且有
$$\left[\begin{array}{c}{\vec{g}}^{1^{\prime }}\\ \\ {\vec{g}}^{2^{\prime }}\\ \\ {\vec{g}}^{3^{\prime }}\end{array}\right]={\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]}^{-1}\left[\begin{array}{c}{\vec{g}}^1\\ \\ {\vec{g}}^2\\ \\ {\vec{g}}^3\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3\\ & & \\ {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{c}{\vec{g}}^1\\ \\ {\vec{g}}^2\\ \\ {\vec{g}}^3\end{array}\right]$$即
$$\{\begin{array}{l}{\vec{g}}^{1^{\prime }}={\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^1{\vec{g}}^1+{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^2{\vec{g}}^2+{\beta }_{1^{\prime }}^3{\vec{g}}^3\\ \\ {\vec{g}}^{2^{\prime }}={\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^1{\vec{g}}^1+{\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^2{\vec{g}}^2+{\beta }_{2^{\prime }}^3{\vec{g}}^3\\ \\ {\vec{g}}^{3^{\prime }}={\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^1{\vec{g}}^1+{\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^2{\vec{g}}^2+{\beta }_{3^{\prime }}^3{\vec{g}}^3\end{array}$$根据这点可知：使得对称张量协变分量为零的新坐标系的逆变基 { g ⃗ 1 ′ ， g ⃗ 2 ′ ， g ⃗ 3 ′ } \{\vec{g}^{1'}，\vec{g}^{2'}，\vec{g}^{3'}\} {g ​1′，g ​2′，g ​3′}也是标准正交基，因为：
$$\begin{array}{rl}& {\vec{g}}^{i^{\prime }}\bullet {\vec{g}}^{j^{\prime }}=({\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^1{\vec{g}}^1+{\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^2{\vec{g}}^2+{\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^3{\vec{g}}^3)\bullet ({\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^1{\vec{g}}^1+{\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^2{\vec{g}}^2+{\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^3{\vec{g}}^3)\\ & \\ & =\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\vec{g}}^1\bullet {\vec{g}}^1& {\vec{g}}^1\bullet {\vec{g}}^2& {\vec{g}}^1\bullet {\vec{g}}^3\\ & & \\ {\vec{g}}^2\bullet {\vec{g}}^1& {\vec{g}}^2\bullet {\vec{g}}^2& {\vec{g}}^2\bullet {\vec{g}}^3\\ & & \\ {\vec{g}}^3\bullet {\vec{g}}^1& {\vec{g}}^3\bullet {\vec{g}}^2& {\vec{g}}^3\bullet {\vec{g}}^3\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{c}{\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^1\\ \\ {\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^2\\ \\ {\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]\\ & \\ & =\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^1& {\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^2& {\beta }_{i^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{c}{\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^1\\ \\ {\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^2\\ \\ {\beta }_{j^{\prime }}^3\end{array}\right]\\ & \\ & =\{\begin{array}{l}0(i^{\prime }=j^{\prime })\\ 1(i^{\prime }\ne j^{\prime })\end{array}(i^{\prime },j^{\prime }=1^{\prime },2^{\prime },3^{\prime })\end{array}$$那么，新坐标系中协变基与逆变基重合，即
$${\vec{g}}^i={\vec{g}}_i={\vec{e}}_i$$各类张量分量分别对应相等，即
$$[N_1]=[N_2]=[N_3]=[N_4]$$从上述讨论可知：对于实对称二阶张量，必定存在某坐标系（某组标准正交基）使得该实对称张量在该坐标系展开有如下形式：
$$\mathbf{N}={\lambda }_1{\vec{e}}_1{\vec{e}}_1+{\lambda }_2{\vec{e}}_2{\vec{e}}_2+{\lambda }_3{\vec{e}}_3{\vec{e}}_3$$将上述形式称作实对称二阶张量的标准形，${\lambda }_1、{\lambda }_2、{\lambda }_3$称作实对称二阶张量的主分量，标准正交基${\vec{e}}_1、{\vec{e}}_2、{\vec{e}}_3$称作实对称二阶张量的主（轴）方向，对应的坐标系称作实对称二阶张量的主坐标系。进一步，注意到
$$\mathbf{N}\bullet {\vec{e}}_i=({\lambda }_1{\vec{e}}_1{\vec{e}}_1+{\lambda }_2{\vec{e}}_2{\vec{e}}_2+{\lambda }_3{\vec{e}}_3{\vec{e}}_3)\bullet {\vec{e}}_i={\lambda }_i{\vec{e}}_i(i=1,2,3)$$这意味着，实对称二阶张量的主方向由其特征向量构成，主分量为其特征值。因为主方向是柱坐标系的基，那么主方向间是线性无关的，换而言之对于实对称张量必定存在三个线性无关的特征向量，又或者说实对称张量的几何重数等于代数重数。

当实对称张量的特征方程有重根时，主方向显然是不唯一的，特别地，当实对称张量有三重特征值时，该张量在空间中的任何标准正交基上进行展开，都将得到其对角标准形。我们将这种具有三重特征值（主分量相同）的实对称张量称作球形张量，记作$\mathbf{P}$。根据定义，度量张量为球形张量，且有：
$$P_1=P_2=P_3=\frac{1}{3}{\mathcal{C}}_1^P⟺\mathbf{P}=\frac{1}{3}{\mathcal{C}}_1^P\mathbf{G}$$