外微分的定义
对于多重积分,我们希望换元法依然可用。例如,设 x = x ( u , v ) , y = y ( u , v ) x = x(u, v), y = y(u, v) x=x(u,v),y=y(u,v),那么二重积分的换元公式是这样的
∬ f ( x , y ) d x d y = ∬ f ( x , y ) ∣ J ( u , v ) ∣ d u d v \iint f(x, y) dxdy = \iint f(x, y) |J(u, v)| dudv ∬f(x,y)dxdy=∬f(x,y)∣J(u,v)∣dudv
其中
J ( u , v ) = ∂ ( x , y ) ∂ ( u , v ) = ∣ ∂ x ∂ u ∂ x ∂ v ∂ y ∂ u ∂ y ∂ v ∣ J(u, v) = \frac{\partial (x, y)}{\partial (u, v)} = \begin{vmatrix} \frac{\partial x}{\partial u} &\frac{\partial x}{\partial v} \\ \frac{\partial y}{\partial u} &\frac{\partial y}{\partial v} \end{vmatrix} J(u,v)=∂(u,v)∂(x,y)=
∂u∂x∂u∂y∂v∂x∂v∂y
是雅可比行列式,这并不“自然”。如果我们规定 d u d u = d v d v = 0 , d u d v = − d v d u dudu = dvdv = 0, ~ dudv = -dvdu dudu=dvdv=0, dudv=−dvdu,那么上式仍可以由换元法“自然”地得到,因为 d x = ∂ x ∂ u d u + ∂ x ∂ v d v , d y = ∂ y ∂ u d u + ∂ y ∂ v d v dx = \frac{\partial x}{\partial u}du + \frac{\partial x}{\partial v}dv, ~ dy = \frac{\partial y}{\partial u}du + \frac{\partial y}{\partial v}dv dx=∂u∂xdu+∂v∂xdv, dy