摄像机
叉乘的右手定则
a×b的方向：四指由a开始，指向b，拇指指的指向就是a×b的方向，垂直版于a和b所在的平面；
b×a的方向：四指由b开始，指向a，拇指的指向就是b×a的方向，垂直于b和a所在的平面；
a×b的方向与b×a的方向是相反的，且有：a×b=-b×a。
注：向量积≠向量的积（向量的积一般指点乘）
摄像机/观察空间
- 摄像机位置
glm::vec3 cameraPos = glm::vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, 3.0f);
如果我们希望摄像机向后移动，我们就往z轴正方向移动。
2 摄像机方向
glm::vec3 cameraTarget = glm::vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f);
glm::vec3 cameraDirection = glm::normalize(cameraPos - cameraTarget);//normalize是归一化处理，0-1之间
由于我们知道摄像机指向z轴负方向，我们希望方向向量指向摄像机的z轴正方向
3. 右轴
glm::vec3 up = glm::vec3(0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f);
glm::vec3 cameraRight = glm::normalize(glm::cross(up, cameraDirection));//cross是叉乘，注意叉乘向量顺序，不可调换
- 上轴
glm::vec3 cameraUp = glm::cross(cameraDirection, cameraRight);
观察矩阵
GLfloat radius = 10.0f;
GLfloat camX = sin(glfwGetTime()) * radius;
GLfloat camZ = cos(glfwGetTime()) * radius;
glm::mat4 view;
view = glm::lookAt(glm::vec3(camX, 0.0, camZ), glm::vec3(0.0, 0.0, 0.0), glm::vec3(0.0, 1.0, 0.0));
//定义一个摄像机位置，一个目标位置和一个表示上向量的世界空间中的向量(我们使用上向量计算右向量)
//摄像机x。z随着时间的变化绕y轴来遍历所有圆圈上的点，这样摄像机就会绕着场景旋转了
这里得出来是矩阵绕x与z组成的平面旋转的样子
自由移动（利用按键）
glm::vec3 cameraPos = glm::vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, 3.0f);
glm::vec3 cameraFront = glm::vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, -1.0f);
glm::vec3 cameraUp = glm::vec3(0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f);
view = glm::lookAt(cameraPos, cameraPos + cameraFront, cameraUp);
//cameraPos为摄像机位置。方向(Direction)是当前的位置加上我们刚刚定义的方向向量。这样能保证无论我们怎么移动，摄像机都会注视目标。
我们已经为GLFW的键盘输入定义了一个key_callback函数，我们来添加几个新按键命令：
bool keys[1024];
void key_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int key, int scancode, int action, int mode)
{
if (key == GLFW_KEY_ESCAPE && action == GLFW_PRESS)
glfwSetWindowShouldClose(window, GL_TRUE);
if (key >= 0 && key < 1024)
{
if (action == GLFW_PRESS)
keys[key] = true;
else if (action == GLFW_RELEASE)
keys[key] = false;
}
}
void do_movement()
{
// Camera controls
GLfloat cameraSpeed = 0.03f;
if (keys[GLFW_KEY_W])
cameraPos += cameraSpeed * cameraFront;
if (keys[GLFW_KEY_S])
cameraPos -= cameraSpeed * cameraFront;
if (keys[GLFW_KEY_A])
cameraPos -= glm::normalize(glm::cross(cameraFront, cameraUp)) * cameraSpeed;
//z轴正方向和负方向与y轴正方向的叉乘都为右轴，减去后，x变小即左移
//normalize标准化移动就是匀速的。
if (keys[GLFW_KEY_D])
cameraPos += glm::normalize(glm::cross(cameraFront, cameraUp)) * cameraSpeed;//同理
}
只有当有按键按下时，才会对摄像机的位置进行更新
移动速度
图形和游戏应用通常有回跟踪一个deltaTime变量，它储存渲染上一帧所用的时间。我们把所有速度都去乘以deltaTime值。当我们的deltaTime变大时意味着上一帧渲染花了更多时间，所以这一帧使用这个更大的deltaTime的值乘以速度，会获得更高的速度，这样就与上一帧平衡了。使用这种方法时，无论你的机器快还是慢，摄像机的速度都会保持一致，这样每个用户的体验就都一样了。
GLfloat deltaTime = 0.0f; // 当前帧遇上一帧的时间差
GLfloat lastFrame = 0.0f; // 上一帧的时间
GLfloat currentFrame = glfwGetTime();
deltaTime = currentFrame - lastFrame;
lastFrame = currentFrame;
void Do_Movement()
{
GLfloat cameraSpeed = 5.0f * deltaTime;
...
}
视觉移动
欧拉角
有三种欧拉角：俯仰角(Pitch)、偏航角(Yaw)和滚转角(Roll)，下面的图片展示了它们的含义：
俯仰角是描述我们如何往上和往下看的角，它在第一张图中表示。第二张图显示了偏航角，偏航角表示我们往左和往右看的大小。滚转角代表我们如何翻滚摄像机。
对于我们的摄像机系统来说，我们只关心俯仰角和偏航角。
direction.y = sin(glm::radians(pitch)); // 注意我们先把角度转为弧度
direction.x = cos(glm::radians(pitch));
direction.z = cos(glm::radians(pitch));
direction.x = cos(glm::radians(pitch)) * cos(glm::radians(yaw));//译注：direction代表摄像机的“前”轴，但此前轴是和本文第一幅图片的第二个摄像机的direction是相反的
direction.y = sin(glm::radians(pitch));
direction.z = cos(glm::radians(pitch)) * sin(glm::radians(yaw));
这样我们就有了一个可以把俯仰角和偏航角转化为用来自由旋转的摄像机的3个维度的方向向量了，这里pitch初始化为0，而yaw初始化为-90.0f保证摄像机的初始方向。
鼠标输入
首先我们要告诉GLFW，应该隐藏光标，并捕捉(Capture)它。
glfwSetInputMode(window, GLFW_CURSOR, GLFW_CURSOR_DISABLED);
鼠标事件的声明与调用：
void mouse_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xpos, double ypos);//这里的xpos和ypos代表当前鼠标的位置。
glfwSetCursorPosCallback(window, mouse_callback);
在处理FPS风格的摄像机鼠标输入的时候，我们必须在获取最终的方向向量之前做下面这几步：
1.计算鼠标和上一帧的偏移量。
GLfloat lastX = widch/2, lastY = height/2;//高度和宽度的一半
GLfloat xoffset = xpos - lastX;
GLfloat yoffset = lastY - ypos; // 注意这里是相反的，因为y坐标的范围是从下往上的，这里不懂为什么要反过来
lastX = xpos;
lastY = ypos;
GLfloat sensitivity = 0.05f;
xoffset *= sensitivity;
yoffset *= sensitivity;
2.把偏移量添加到摄像机和俯仰角和偏航角中。
yaw += xoffset;
pitch += yoffset;
3.对偏航角和俯仰角进行最大和最小值的限制。
对于俯仰角，要让用户不能看向高于89度(90度时视角会逆转，所以我们把89度作为极限)的地方，同样也不允许小于-89度。
if(pitch > 89.0f)
pitch = 89.0f;
if(pitch < -89.0f)
pitch = -89.0f;
4.计算方向向量。
glm::vec3 front;
front.x = cos(glm::radians(pitch)) * cos(glm::radians(yaw));
front.y = sin(glm::radians(pitch));
front.z = cos(glm::radians(pitch)) * sin(glm::radians(yaw));
cameraFront = glm::normalize(front);
如果是鼠标第一次进来：
if(firstMouse) // 这个bool变量一开始是设定为true的
{
lastX = xpos;
lastY = ypos;
firstMouse = false;
}
缩放
void scroll_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xoffset, double yoffset)
{
if(aspect >= 1.0f && aspect <= 45.0f)
aspect -= yoffset;
if(aspect <= 1.0f)
aspect = 1.0f;
if(aspect >= 45.0f)
aspect = 45.0f;
}
yoffset值代表我们滚动的大小。当scroll_callback函数调用后，我们改变全局aspect变量的内容。因为45.0f是默认的fov，我们将会把缩放级别限制在1.0f到45.0f。
我们现在在每一帧都必须把透视投影矩阵上传到GPU，但这一次使aspect变量作为它的fov：
GLfloat aspect = 45.0f;//全局
projection = glm::perspective(aspect, (GLfloat)WIDTH/(GLfloat)HEIGHT, 0.1f, 100.0f);
最后不要忘记注册滚动回调函数：
glfwSetScrollCallback(window, scroll_callback);
全部代码
#include <iostream>
// GLEW
#define GLEW_STATIC
#include <GL/glew.h>
// GLFW
#include <GLFW/glfw3.h>
// Other Libs
#include <SOIL.h>
// Other includes
#include "Shader.h"
#include <glm/glm.hpp>
#include <glm/gtc/matrix_transform.hpp>
#include <glm/gtc/type_ptr.hpp>
// Function prototypes
void key_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int key, int scancode, int action, int mode);
void mouse_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xpos, double ypos);
void scroll_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xoffset, double yoffset);
void do_movement();
// Window dimensions
const GLuint WIDTH = 1200, HEIGHT = 900;
// Camera
glm::vec3 cameraPos = glm::vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, 3.0f);
glm::vec3 cameraFront = glm::vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, -1.0f);
glm::vec3 cameraUp = glm::vec3(0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f);
GLfloat yaw = -90.0f; // Yaw is initialized to -90.0 degrees since a yaw of 0.0 results in a direction vector pointing to the right (due to how Eular angles work) so we initially rotate a bit to the left.
GLfloat pitch = 0.0f;
GLfloat lastX = WIDTH / 2.0;
GLfloat lastY = HEIGHT / 2.0;
GLfloat deltaTime = 0.0f; // 当前帧遇上一帧的时间差
GLfloat lastFrame = 0.0f; // 上一帧的时间
GLfloat aspect = 45.0f;
bool keys[1024];
// The MAIN function, from here we start the application and run the game loop
int main()
{
// Init GLFW
glfwInit();
// Set all the required options for GLFW
glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MAJOR, 3);
glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MINOR, 3);
glfwWindowHint(GLFW_OPENGL_PROFILE, GLFW_OPENGL_CORE_PROFILE);
glfwWindowHint(GLFW_RESIZABLE, GL_FALSE);
// Create a GLFWwindow object that we can use for GLFW's functions
GLFWwindow* window = glfwCreateWindow(WIDTH, HEIGHT, "LearnOpenGL", nullptr, nullptr);
glfwMakeContextCurrent(window);
// Set the required callback functions
glfwSetKeyCallback(window, key_callback);
glfwSetCursorPosCallback(window, mouse_callback);
glfwSetScrollCallback(window, scroll_callback);
// GLFW Options
glfwSetInputMode(window, GLFW_CURSOR, GLFW_CURSOR_DISABLED);
// Set this to true so GLEW knows to use a modern approach to retrieving function pointers and extensions
glewExperimental = GL_TRUE;
// Initialize GLEW to setup the OpenGL Function pointers
glewInit();
// Define the viewport dimensions
glViewport(0, 0, WIDTH, HEIGHT);
//想开启深度测试
glEnable(GL_DEPTH_TEST);
// Build and compile our shader program
Shader ourShader("default.vs", "default.frag");
// Set up vertex data (and buffer(s)) and attribute pointers
GLfloat vertices[] = {
-0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,
0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,
0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,
-0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,
-0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,
-0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,
0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,
0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,
-0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,
-0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,
-0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
-0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,
-0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,
-0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,
-0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,
-0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,
0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,
0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,
0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,
0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
-0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,
0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,
0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
-0.5f, -0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,
-0.5f, -0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,
-0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f,
0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 1.0f, 1.0f,
0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
-0.5f, 0.5f, 0.5f, 0.0f, 0.0f,
-0.5f, 0.5f, -0.5f, 0.0f, 1.0f
};
glm::vec3 cubePositions[] = {
glm::vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f),
glm::vec3(2.0f, 5.0f, -15.0f),
glm::vec3(-1.5f, -2.2f, -2.5f),
glm::vec3(-3.8f, -2.0f, -12.3f),
glm::vec3(2.4f, -0.4f, -3.5f),
glm::vec3(-1.7f, 3.0f, -7.5f),
glm::vec3(1.3f, -2.0f, -2.5f),
glm::vec3(1.5f, 2.0f, -2.5f),
glm::vec3(1.5f, 0.2f, -1.5f),
glm::vec3(-1.3f, 1.0f, -1.5f)
};
GLuint VBO, VAO;
glGenVertexArrays(1, &VAO);
glGenBuffers(1, &VBO);
glBindVertexArray(VAO);
glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, VBO);
glBufferData(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, sizeof(vertices), vertices, GL_STATIC_DRAW);
// Position attribute
glVertexAttribPointer(0, 3, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 5 * sizeof(GLfloat), (GLvoid*)0);
glEnableVertexAttribArray(0);
//第一个参数为传入顶点着色器的位置值，第二个为顶点属性大小
//第6个为数据在缓冲中起始位置的偏移量(Offset)，即数组下标
// TexCoord attribute
glVertexAttribPointer(2, 2, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 5 * sizeof(GLfloat), (GLvoid*)(3 * sizeof(GLfloat)));
glEnableVertexAttribArray(2);
glBindVertexArray(0); // Unbind VAO
GLuint texture1;
GLuint texture2;
// ====================
// Texture 1
// ====================
glGenTextures(1, &texture1);
glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture1); // All upcoming GL_TEXTURE_2D operations now have effect on our texture object
// Set our texture parameters
glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_S, GL_REPEAT); // Set texture wrapping to GL_REPEAT
glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_T, GL_REPEAT);
// Set texture filtering
glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MIN_FILTER, GL_LINEAR);
glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MAG_FILTER, GL_LINEAR);
// Load, create texture and generate mipmaps
int width, height;
unsigned char* image = SOIL_load_image("img/自然风景背景图 (2).jpg", &width, &height, 0, SOIL_LOAD_RGB);
glTexImage2D(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0, GL_RGB, width, height, 0, GL_RGB, GL_UNSIGNED_BYTE, image);
glGenerateMipmap(GL_TEXTURE_2D);
SOIL_free_image_data(image);
glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0); // Unbind texture when done, so we won't accidentily mess up our texture.
// ===================
// Texture 2
// ===================
glGenTextures(1, &texture2);
glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture2);
// Set our texture parameters
glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_S, GL_REPEAT);
glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_WRAP_T, GL_REPEAT);
// Set texture filtering
glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MIN_FILTER, GL_LINEAR);
glTexParameteri(GL_TEXTURE_2D, GL_TEXTURE_MAG_FILTER, GL_LINEAR);
// Load, create texture and generate mipmaps
image = SOIL_load_image("img/1.jpg", &width, &height, 0, SOIL_LOAD_RGB);
glTexImage2D(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0, GL_RGB, width, height, 0, GL_RGB, GL_UNSIGNED_BYTE, image);
glGenerateMipmap(GL_TEXTURE_2D);
SOIL_free_image_data(image);
glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, 0);
// Game loop
while (!glfwWindowShouldClose(window))
{
// Check if any events have been activiated (key pressed, mouse moved etc.) and call corresponding response functions
glfwPollEvents();
do_movement();
// Activate shader
ourShader.Use();
// Render
// Clear the colorbuffer
glClearColor(0.2f, 0.3f, 0.3f, 1.0f);
glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT);
//清除深度缓冲区
glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT | GL_DEPTH_BUFFER_BIT);
glActiveTexture(GL_TEXTURE0);
glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture1);
glUniform1i(glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.Program, "ourTexture1"), 0);
glActiveTexture(GL_TEXTURE1);
glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture2);
glUniform1i(glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.Program, "ourTexture2"), 1);
GLfloat currentFrame = glfwGetTime();
deltaTime = currentFrame - lastFrame;
lastFrame = currentFrame;
glm::mat4 view;
view = glm::lookAt(cameraPos,cameraPos+cameraFront,cameraUp);
// Projection
glm::mat4 projection;
projection = glm::perspective(aspect, (GLfloat)WIDTH / (GLfloat)HEIGHT, 0.1f, 100.0f);
// Get the uniform locations
GLint viewLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.Program, "view");
GLint projLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.Program, "projection");
// Pass the matrices to the shader
glUniformMatrix4fv(viewLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(view));
glUniformMatrix4fv(projLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(projection));
glBindVertexArray(VAO);
for (GLuint i = 0; i < 10; i++)
{
// Calculate the model matrix for each object and pass it to shader before drawing
glm::mat4 model;
model = glm::translate(model, cubePositions[i]);
GLfloat angle = 20.0f * i;
model = glm::rotate(model, angle, glm::vec3(1.0f, 0.3f, 0.5f));
GLint modelLoc = glGetUniformLocation(ourShader.Program, "model");
glUniformMatrix4fv(modelLoc, 1, GL_FALSE, glm::value_ptr(model));
glDrawArrays(GL_TRIANGLES, 0, 36);
}
glBindVertexArray(0);
// Swap the screen buffers
glfwSwapBuffers(window);
}
// Properly de-allocate all resources once they've outlived their purpose
glDeleteVertexArrays(1, &VAO);
glDeleteBuffers(1, &VBO);
// Terminate GLFW, clearing any resources allocated by GLFW.
glfwTerminate();
return 0;
}
// Is called whenever a key is pressed/released via GLFW
void key_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int key, int scancode, int action, int mode)
{
if (key == GLFW_KEY_ESCAPE && action == GLFW_PRESS)
glfwSetWindowShouldClose(window, GL_TRUE);
if (key >= 0 && key < 1024)
{
if (action == GLFW_PRESS)
keys[key] = true;
else if (action == GLFW_RELEASE)
keys[key] = false;
}
}
void do_movement()
{
// Camera controls
GLfloat cameraSpeed = 5.0f * deltaTime;
if (keys[GLFW_KEY_W])
cameraPos += cameraSpeed * cameraFront;
if (keys[GLFW_KEY_S])
cameraPos -= cameraSpeed * cameraFront;
if (keys[GLFW_KEY_A])
cameraPos -= glm::normalize(glm::cross(cameraFront, cameraUp)) * cameraSpeed;
if (keys[GLFW_KEY_D])
cameraPos += glm::normalize(glm::cross(cameraFront, cameraUp)) * cameraSpeed;
}
bool firstMouse = true;
void mouse_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xpos, double ypos)
{
if (firstMouse)
{
lastX = xpos;
lastY = ypos;
firstMouse = false;
}
GLfloat xoffset = xpos - lastX;
GLfloat yoffset = lastY - ypos; // Reversed since y-coordinates go from bottom to left
lastX = xpos;
lastY = ypos;
GLfloat sensitivity = 0.05; // Change this value to your liking
xoffset *= sensitivity;
yoffset *= sensitivity;
yaw += xoffset;
pitch += yoffset;
// Make sure that when pitch is out of bounds, screen doesn't get flipped
if (pitch > 89.0f)
pitch = 89.0f;
if (pitch < -89.0f)
pitch = -89.0f;
glm::vec3 front;
front.x = cos(glm::radians(yaw)) * cos(glm::radians(pitch));
front.y = sin(glm::radians(pitch));
front.z = sin(glm::radians(yaw)) * cos(glm::radians(pitch));
cameraFront = glm::normalize(front);
}
void scroll_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xoffset, double yoffeset)
{
if (aspect >= 1.0f&&aspect <= 45.0f)
aspect -= yoffeset;
if (aspect <= 1.0f)
aspect = 1.0f;
if (aspect >= 45.0f)
aspect = 45.0f;
}
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