1.行列式的定义
1.1.本质定义
n n n阶行列式 D n = ∣ a 11 ⋯ a 1 n ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 ⋯ a n n ∣ D_n=\left\vert\begin{matrix}a_{11}&\cdots &a_{1n}\\\vdots&&\vdots\\a_{n1}&\cdots &a_{nn}\end{matrix}\right\vert Dn= a11⋮an1⋯⋯a1n⋮ann 是由 n n n个 n n n维列向量 α 1 = [ a 11 , a 12 , ⋯ , a 1 n ] ⋯ α n = [ a n 1 , a n 2 , ⋯ , a n n ] \alpha_1=[a_{11},a_{12},\cdots,a_{1n}]\cdots\alpha_n=[a_{n1},a_{n2},\cdots,a_{nn}] α1=[a11,a12,⋯,a1n]⋯αn=[an1,an2,⋯,ann]组成的,其结果是以这 n n n个向量为邻边的 n n n维图形的(有向)体积.
1.2.逆序数法定义
∣ a 11 a 12 ⋯ a 1 n a 21 a 22 ⋯ a 2 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 a n 2 ⋯ a n n ∣ = ∑ j 1 j 2 ⋯ j n ( − 1 ) τ ( j 1 j 2 ⋯ j n ) a 1 j 1 a 2 j 2 ⋯ a n j n ( 共 n ! 项 ) ( n ⩾ 2 ) \left|\begin{matrix} a_{11}&a_{12}&\cdots&a_{1n} \\a_{21}&a_{22}&\cdots&a_{2n} \\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\a_{n1}&a_{n2}&\cdots&a_{nn} \end{matrix}\right| =\sum\limits_{j_1j_2\cdots j_n}(-1)^{\tau(j_1j_2\cdots j_n)}a_{1j_1}a_{2j_2}\cdots a_{nj_n}~~~~~(共n!项)(n\geqslant2) a11a21⋮an1a12a22⋮an2⋯⋯⋯a1na2n⋮ann =j1j2⋯jn∑(−1)τ(j1j2⋯jn)a1j1a2j2⋯anjn (共n!项)(n⩾2)
2.行列式的性质
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行列互换,其值不变.
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行列式中某行(列)元素全为零,则行列式为零.
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行列式中的两行(列)元素相等或对应成比例,则行列式为零.
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行列式中某行(列)元素均是两个元素之和,则可以拆成两个行列式.
∣ a 11 a 12 ⋯ a 1 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a i 1 + b i 1 a i 2 + b i 2 ⋯ a i n + b i n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 a n 2 ⋯ a n n ∣ = ∣ a 11 a 12 ⋯ a 1 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a i 1 a i 2 ⋯ a i n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 a n 2 ⋯ a n n ∣ + ∣ a 11 a 12 ⋯ a 1 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ b i 1 b i 2 ⋯ b i n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 a n 2 ⋯ a n n ∣ \left|\begin{matrix}a_{11}&a_{12}&\cdots&a_{1n}\\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots\\a_{i1}+b_{i1}&a_{i2}+b_{i2}&\cdots&a_{in}+b_{in}\\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots\\a_{n1}&a_{n2}&\cdots&a_{nn}\end{matrix}\right|=\left|\begin{matrix}a_{11}&a_{12}&\cdots&a_{1n}\\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots\\a_{i1}&a_{i2}&\cdots&a_{in}\\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots\\a_{n1}&a_{n2}&\cdots&a_{nn}\end{matrix}\right|+\left|\begin{matrix}a_{11}&a_{12}&\cdots&a_{1n}\\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots\\b_{i1}&b_{i2}&\cdots&b_{in}\\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots\\a_{n1}&a_{n2}&\cdots&a_{nn}\end{matrix}\right| a11⋮ai1+bi1⋮an1a12⋮ai2+bi2⋮an2⋯⋯⋯a1n⋮ain+bin⋮ann = a11⋮ai1⋮an1a12⋮ai2⋮an2⋯⋯⋯a1n⋮ain⋮ann + a11⋮bi1⋮an1a12⋮bi2⋮an2⋯⋯⋯a1n⋮bin⋮ann
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行列式中两行(列)互换,行列式的值反号.
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只乘一行(列)!!(倍乘)
∣ a 11 a 12 ⋯ a 1 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ k a i 1 k a i 2 ⋯ k a i n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 a n 2 ⋯ a n n ∣ = k ∣ a 11 a 12 ⋯ a 1 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a i 1 a i 2 ⋯ a i n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 a n 2 ⋯ a n n ∣ \left|\begin{matrix} a_{11}&a_{12}&\cdots&a_{1n} \\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\ka_{i1}&ka_{i2}&\cdots&ka_{in} \\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\a_{n1}&a_{n2}&\cdots&a_{nn} \end{matrix}\right| =k \left|\begin{matrix} a_{11}&a_{12}&\cdots&a_{1n} \\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\a_{i1}&a_{i2}&\cdots&a_{in} \\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\a_{n1}&a_{n2}&\cdots&a_{nn} \end{matrix}\right| a11⋮kai1⋮an1a12⋮kai2⋮an2⋯⋯⋯a1n⋮kain⋮ann =k a11⋮ai1⋮an1a12⋮ai2⋮an2⋯⋯⋯a1n⋮ain⋮ann
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行列式中某行(列)的 k k k倍加到另一行(列),行列式的值不变。(倍加)
3.行列式的展开定理
3.1.余子式
M i j = ∣ a 11 ⋯ a 1 , j − 1 a 1 , j + 1 ⋯ a 1 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a i − 1 , 1 ⋯ a i − 1 , j − 1 a i − 1 , j + 1 ⋯ a i − 1 , n a i + 1 , 1 ⋯ a i + 1 , j − 1 a i + 1 , j + 1 ⋯ a i + 1 , n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 ⋯ a n , j − 1 a n , j + 1 ⋯ a n n ∣ M_{ij}= \left|\begin{matrix} a_{11}&\cdots&a_{1,j-1}&a_{1,j+1}&\cdots&a_{1n} \\\vdots&&\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\a_{i-1,1}&\cdots&a_{i-1,j-1}&a_{i-1,j+1}&\cdots&a_{i-1,n} \\a_{i+1,1}&\cdots&a_{i+1,j-1}&a_{i+1,j+1}&\cdots&a_{i+1,n} \\\vdots&&\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\a_{n1}&\cdots&a_{n,j-1}&a_{n,j+1}&\cdots&a_{nn} \end{matrix}\right| Mij= a11⋮ai−1,1ai+1,1⋮an1⋯⋯⋯⋯a1,j−1⋮ai−1,j−1ai+1,j−1⋮an,j−1a1,j+1⋮ai−1,j+1ai+1,j+1⋮an,j+1⋯⋯⋯⋯a1n⋮ai−1,nai+1,n⋮ann
3.2.代数余子式
A i j = ( − 1 ) i + j M i j A_{ij}=(-1)^{i+j}M_{ij} Aij=(−1)i+jMij
3.3.行列式按某一行(列)展开的展开公式
∣ A ∣ = { a i 1 A i 1 + a i 2 A i 2 + ⋯ + a i n A i n = ∑ j = 1 n a i j A i j ( i = 1 , 2 , ⋯ , n ) a 1 j A 1 j + a 2 j A 2 j + ⋯ + a n j A n j = ∑ i = 1 n a i j A i j ( j = 1 , 2 , ⋯ , n ) { a i 1 A k 1 + a i 2 A k 2 + ⋯ + a i n A k n = 0 ( i ≠ k ) a 1 j A 1 k + a 2 j A 2 k + ⋯ + a n j A n k = 0 ( j ≠ k ) |A|= \begin{cases} a_{i1}A_{i1}+a_{i2}A_{i2}+\cdots+a_{in}A_{in}=\sum\limits_{j=1}^na_{ij}A_{ij}(i=1,2,\cdots,n) \\a_{1j}A_{1j}+a_{2j}A_{2j}+\cdots+a_{nj}A_{nj}=\sum\limits_{i=1}^na_{ij}A_{ij}(j=1,2,\cdots,n) \end{cases} \\ \begin{cases} a_{i1}A_{k1}+a_{i2}A_{k2}+\cdots+a_{in}A_{kn}=0(i\ne k) \\a_{1j}A_{1k}+a_{2j}A_{2k}+\cdots+a_{nj}A_{nk}=0(j\ne k) \end{cases} ∣A∣=⎩ ⎨ ⎧ai1Ai1+ai2Ai2+⋯+ainAin=j=1∑naijAij(i=1,2,⋯,n)a1jA1j+a2jA2j+⋯+anjAnj=i=1∑naijAij(j=1,2,⋯,n){ai1Ak1+ai2Ak2+⋯+ainAkn=0(i=k)a1jA1k+a2jA2k+⋯+anjAnk=0(j=k)
4.几个重要行列式
4.1.主对角线行列式
∣ a 11 a 12 ⋯ a 1 n 0 a 22 ⋯ a 2 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ 0 0 ⋯ a n n ∣ = ∣ a 11 0 ⋯ 0 a 21 a 22 ⋯ 0 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 a n 2 ⋯ a n n ∣ = ∣ a 11 0 ⋯ 0 0 a 22 ⋯ 0 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ 0 0 ⋯ a n n ∣ = ∏ i = 1 n a i i \left|\begin{matrix} a_{11}&a_{12}&\cdots&a_{1n} \\0&a_{22}&\cdots&a_{2n} \\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\0&0&\cdots&a_{nn} \end{matrix}\right|= \left|\begin{matrix} a_{11}&0&\cdots&0 \\a_{21}&a_{22}&\cdots&0 \\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\a_{n1}&a_{n2}&\cdots&a_{nn} \end{matrix}\right|= \left|\begin{matrix} a_{11}&0&\cdots&0 \\0&a_{22}&\cdots&0 \\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\0&0&\cdots&a_{nn} \end{matrix}\right|= \prod\limits_{i=1}^na_{ii} a110⋮0a12a22⋮0⋯⋯⋯a1na2n⋮ann = a11a21⋮an10a22⋮an2⋯⋯⋯00⋮ann = a110⋮00a22⋮0⋯⋯⋯00⋮ann =i=1∏naii
4.2.副对角线行列式
∣ a 11 ⋯ a 1 , n − 1 a 1 n a 21 ⋯ a 2 , n − 1 0 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 ⋯ 0 0 ∣ = ∣ 0 ⋯ 0 a 1 n 0 ⋯ a 2 , n − 1 a 2 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 ⋯ a n , n − 1 a n n ∣ = ∣ 0 ⋯ 0 a 1 n 0 ⋯ a 2 , n − 1 0 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 ⋯ 0 0 ∣ = ( − 1 ) n ( n − 1 ) 2 a 1 n a 2 , n − 1 ⋯ a n 1 \left|\begin{matrix} a_{11}&\cdots&a_{1,n-1}&a_{1n} \\a_{21}&\cdots&a_{2,n-1}&0 \\\vdots&&\vdots&\vdots \\a_{n1}&\cdots&0&0 \end{matrix}\right|= \left|\begin{matrix} 0&\cdots&0&a_{1n} \\0&\cdots&a_{2,n-1}&a_{2n} \\\vdots&&\vdots&\vdots \\a_{n1}&\cdots&a_{n,n-1}&a_{nn} \end{matrix}\right|= \left|\begin{matrix} 0&\cdots&0&a_{1n} \\0&\cdots&a_{2,n-1}&0 \\\vdots&&\vdots&\vdots \\a_{n1}&\cdots&0&0 \end{matrix}\right| =(-1)^{\frac{n(n-1)}{2}}a_{1n}a_{2,n-1}\cdots a_{n1} a11a21⋮an1⋯⋯⋯a1,n−1a2,n−1⋮0a1n0⋮0 = 00⋮an1⋯⋯⋯0a2,n−1⋮an,n−1a1na2n⋮ann = 00⋮an1⋯⋯⋯0a2,n−1⋮0a1n0⋮0 =(−1)2n(n−1)a1na2,n−1⋯an1
4.3.拉普拉斯展开式
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\left| \begin{matrix} A&O \\O&B \end{matrix} \right|= \left| \begin{matrix} A&C \\O&B \end{matrix} \right|= \left| \begin{matrix} A&O \\C&B \end{matrix} \right| =|A||B| \\ \left| \begin{matrix} O&A \\B&O \end{matrix} \right|= \left| \begin{matrix} C&A \\B&O \end{matrix} \right|= \left| \begin{matrix} O&A \\B&C \end{matrix} \right| =(-1)^{mn}|A||B|
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=(−1)mn∣A∣∣B∣
4.4.范德蒙德行列式
∣ 1 1 ⋯ 1 x 1 x 2 ⋯ x n x 1 2 x 2 2 ⋯ x n 2 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ x 1 n − 1 x 2 n − 1 ⋯ x n n − 1 ∣ = ∏ 1 ⩽ i < j ⩽ n ( x j − x i ) , n ⩾ 2 \left| \begin{matrix} 1&1&\cdots&1 \\x_1&x_2&\cdots&x_n \\x_1^2&x_2^2&\cdots&x_n^2 \\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\x_1^{n-1}&x_2^{n-1}&\cdots&x_n^{n-1} \end{matrix} \right| =\prod\limits_{1\leqslant i<j\leqslant n}(x_j-x_i),n\geqslant2 1x1x12⋮x1n−11x2x22⋮x2n−1⋯⋯⋯⋯1xnxn2⋮xnn−1 =1⩽i<j⩽n∏(xj−xi),n⩾2
5.行列式的计算
5.1.具体型
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化为基本形行列式
{ 直接展开——某行 ( 列 ) 有最多 0 元素且阶数较低 爪形——用斜爪消去平 / 竖爪 异爪形——阶数低可直接展开;递推法 行 ( 列 ) 和相等——所有列 ( 行 ) 加到某一行 ( 列 ) , 提公因式 消 0 化主 ( 副 ) 对角线形 拉普拉斯展开式 范德蒙德行列式 \begin{cases}直接展开——某行(列)有最多0元素且阶数较低\\爪形——用斜爪消去平/竖爪\\异爪形——阶数低可直接展开;递推法\\行(列)和相等——所有列(行)加到某一行(列),提公因式\\消0化主(副)对角线形\\拉普拉斯展开式\\范德蒙德行列式\end{cases} ⎩ ⎨ ⎧直接展开——某行(列)有最多0元素且阶数较低爪形——用斜爪消去平/竖爪异爪形——阶数低可直接展开;递推法行(列)和相等——所有列(行)加到某一行(列),提公因式消0化主(副)对角线形拉普拉斯展开式范德蒙德行列式
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加边法
D n = ∣ a 11 a 12 ⋯ a 1 n a 21 a 22 ⋯ a 2 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 a n 2 ⋯ a n n ∣ = ∣ 1 ∗ ∗ ⋯ ∗ 0 a 11 a 12 ⋯ a 1 n 0 a 21 a 22 ⋯ a 2 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ 0 a n 1 a n 2 ⋯ a n n ∣ D_n= \left|\begin{matrix} a_{11}&a_{12}&\cdots&a_{1n} \\a_{21}&a_{22}&\cdots&a_{2n} \\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\a_{n1}&a_{n2}&\cdots&a_{nn} \end{matrix}\right|= \left|\begin{matrix} 1&*&*&\cdots&* \\0&a_{11}&a_{12}&\cdots&a_{1n} \\0&a_{21}&a_{22}&\cdots&a_{2n} \\\vdots&\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\0&a_{n1}&a_{n2}&\cdots&a_{nn} \end{matrix}\right| Dn= a11a21⋮an1a12a22⋮an2⋯⋯⋯a1na2n⋮ann = 100⋮0∗a11a21⋮an1∗a12a22⋮an2⋯⋯⋯⋯∗a1na2n⋮ann
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递推法(高阶 → \to →低阶)
D n − 1 D_{n-1} Dn−1与 D n D_n Dn要有完全相同的元素分布规律
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数学归纳法(低阶 → \to →高阶)
- 第一数学归纳法(
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- 验证 n = 1 n=1 n=1时,命题成立
- 假设 n = k ( ⩾ 2 ) n=k(\geqslant2) n=k(⩾2)时,命题成立
- 证明 n = k + 1 n=k+1 n=k+1时,命题成立
- 第二数学归纳法(
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- 验证 n = 1 n=1 n=1和 n = 2 n=2 n=2时,命题成立
- 假设 n < k n<k n<k时,命题成立
- 证明 n = k ( ⩾ 3 ) n=k(\geqslant3) n=k(⩾3)时,命题成立
- 第一数学归纳法(
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5.2.抽象型
- 用行列式的性质
- 用矩阵知识
- C = A B ⇒ ∣ C ∣ = ∣ A B ∣ = ∣ A ∣ ∣ B ∣ C=AB\Rightarrow|C|=|AB|=|A||B| C=AB⇒∣C∣=∣AB∣=∣A∣∣B∣
- C = A + B ⇒ ∣ C ∣ = ∣ A + B ∣ C=A+B\Rightarrow|C|=|A+B| C=A+B⇒∣C∣=∣A+B∣,对 ∣ A + B ∣ |A+B| ∣A+B∣作恒等变形,转化为矩阵乘积的行列式. { 由题设条件如 E = A A T 用 E = A A − 1 \begin{cases}由题设条件如E=AA^T\\用E=AA^{-1}\end{cases} {由题设条件如E=AAT用E=AA−1
- 矩阵的其他公式、性质
- 用相似理论
- ∣ A ∣ = ∏ i = 1 n λ i |A|=\prod\limits_{i=1}^n\lambda_i ∣A∣=i=1∏nλi
- A A A相似于 B ⇒ ∣ A ∣ = ∣ B ∣ B\Rightarrow|A|=|B| B⇒∣A∣=∣B∣
5.3.余子式和代数余子式的计算
5.3.1.用行列式
a i 1 A i 1 + a i 2 A i 2 + ⋯ + a i n A i n = ∣ ∗ a i 1 a i 2 ⋯ a i n ∗ ∣ ⇓ k 1 A i 1 + k 2 A i 2 + ⋯ + k n A i n = ∣ ∗ k 1 k 2 ⋯ k n ∗ ∣ a_{i1}A_{i1}+a_{i2}A_{i2}+\cdots+a_{in}A_{in}= \left| \begin{matrix} * \\a_{i1}~~a_{i2}~~\cdots~~a_{in} \\ * \end{matrix} \right| \\\Downarrow \\ k_1A_{i1}+k_2A_{i2}+\cdots+k_nA_{in}= \left| \begin{matrix} * \\k_1~~k_2~~\cdots~~k_n \\ * \end{matrix} \right| ai1Ai1+ai2Ai2+⋯+ainAin= ∗ai1 ai2 ⋯ ain∗ ⇓k1Ai1+k2Ai2+⋯+knAin= ∗k1 k2 ⋯ kn∗
5.3.2.用矩阵
∣ A ∣ ≠ 0 时 , A ∗ = ∣ A ∣ A − 1 A ∗ = ( A 11 A 21 ⋯ A n 1 A 12 A 22 ⋯ A n 2 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ A 1 n A 2 n ⋯ A n n ) |A|\ne0时,A^*=|A|A^{-1} \\ A^*= \left( \begin{matrix} A_{11}&A_{21}&\cdots&A_{n1} \\A_{12}&A_{22}&\cdots&A_{n2} \\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\A_{1n}&A_{2n}&\cdots&A_{nn} \end{matrix} \right) ∣A∣=0时,A∗=∣A∣A−1A∗= A11A12⋮A1nA21A22⋮A2n⋯⋯⋯An1An2⋮Ann
5.3.3.用特征值
A 为可逆矩阵 , A 的特征值为 λ i , A ∗ 的特征值为 ∣ A ∣ λ i = λ 1 λ 2 ⋯ λ n λ i = ∏ k ≠ i λ k ( i = 1 , 2 , ⋯ , n ) A ∗ = ( A 11 A 21 ⋯ A n 1 A 12 A 22 ⋯ A n 2 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ A 1 n A 2 n ⋯ A n n ) ∑ i = 1 n A i i = t r ( A ∗ ) = ∑ i = 1 n ∏ k ≠ i λ k A 11 + A 22 + A 33 = λ 2 λ 3 + λ 1 λ 3 + λ 1 λ 2 A为可逆矩阵,A的特征值为\lambda_i,A^*的特征值为\frac{|A|}{\lambda_i}=\frac{\lambda_1\lambda_2\cdots\lambda_n}{\lambda_i}=\prod\limits_{k\ne i}\lambda_k(i=1,2,\cdots,n) \\A^*= \left( \begin{matrix} A_{11}&A_{21}&\cdots&A_{n1} \\A_{12}&A_{22}&\cdots&A_{n2} \\\vdots&\vdots&&\vdots \\A_{1n}&A_{2n}&\cdots&A_{nn} \end{matrix} \right) \\\sum\limits_{i=1}^nA_{ii}=tr(A^*)=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\prod\limits_{k\ne i}\lambda_k \\A_{11}+A_{22}+A_{33}=\lambda_2\lambda_3+\lambda_1\lambda_3+\lambda_1\lambda_2 A为可逆矩阵,A的特征值为λi,A∗的特征值为λi∣A∣=λiλ1λ2⋯λn=k=i∏λk(i=1,2,⋯,n)A∗= A11A12⋮A1nA21A22⋮A2n⋯⋯⋯An1An2⋮Ann i=1∑nAii=tr(A∗)=i=1∑nk=i∏λkA11+A22+A33=λ2λ3+λ1λ3+λ1λ2