陶哲轩实分析（上）8.1及习题-Analysis I 8.1

以我相对平庸的智商来说，Analysis I 的第8章是整本书中相对比较难的章节之一，由于（以个人的理解）这章实际是将集合论和实分析的起步阶段内容都介绍了，但是篇幅又不会展开到实分析教科书的程度，对于第一次接触的人毫无疑问是比较棘手的，我虽然之前接触过实分析，大致能理解countable和uncountable的区别，但是从没有非常仔细的思考过著名的选择公理Axiom of Choice，以及其各种等价结论，还有其应用。这一章提供了一个机会。

本章的习题也是 Analysis I 中数量比较大，难度也挺高的一部分，基本上如果没有hint，都很难做出来。这种熬脑的感觉在第1节还好，在第5节达到了顶峰。

Exercise 8.1.1

First, if there exists a proper subset $Y⊊X$ which has the same cardinality as $X$, then assume $X$ is finite, then $Y$ must be finite. Since $X=Y\cap (X\backslash Y)$, we know that $Y$ and $X\backslash Y$ are disjoint, further $X\backslash Y$ is not empty, so $\#(X\backslash Y)\ge 1$, and
$$\#(X)=\#(Y)+\#(X\backslash Y)=\#(X)+\#(X\backslash Y)\ge \#(X)+1>\#(X)$$
which is a contradiction.
On the contrary, if $X$ is infinite, then we can form a set $S$ like this:
Choose $\forall x\in X$, rename it $x_0$ and let S 0 = { x 0 } S_0=\{x_0 \} S0​={ x0​}, then choose any element belongs to $X\backslash S_0$, and rename it $x_1$, then let S 1 = S 0 ∪ { x 1 } S_1=S_0∪\{x_1 \} S1​=S0​∪{ x1​}. This process shall never stop, since $X$ is infinite and we have the Axiom of Choice. Doing this recursively, we can eventually get a set $S$ (by letting $n\to \infty$), obviously $S\subseteq X$.
We let Y = X \ { x 0 } Y=X\backslash \{x_0\} Y=X\{ x0​}, then $Y$ is a proper subset of $X$. For any $x\in X$, either $x\in S$ or $x\in X\backslash S$, thus we define a function $f$ from $X$ to $Y$ as follows:
$$f(x)=\{\begin{array}{ll}{x}_{n+1},& x=x_n\in S\\ x,& x\in X\backslash S\end{array}$$
It’s easy to show that $f$ is a bijection.

Exercise 8.1.2

For the sake of contradiction we assume Proposition 8.1.4 is false, then there’s a nonempty set $X\subseteq \mathbf{N}$, such that for any $n\in X$, there exists one $m\in X$ s.t. $m<n$.
Since $X\ne \varnothing$, we choose $x\in X$, and let $x=a_0$, by our assumption, we can find an element $a_1\in X,a_1<x=a_0$, once we find $a_n$, we can by assumption find an element $a_{n+1}\in X$ such that $a_{n+1}<a_n$, thus we build a infinite descent sequence $(a_n{)}_{n=0}^{\infty }$ of natural numbers, this contradicts the principle of infinite descent.
If we replace the natural numbers by the integers, then the well-ordering principle doesn’t work. For example the set X = { − 1 , − 2 , − 3 , … } X=\{-1,-2,-3,…\} X={ −1,−2,−3,…} doesn’t have a minimum element.
If we replace the natural numbers by the positive rationals, then the well-ordering principle doesn’t work. For example the set X = { q ∈ Q : q > 0 } X=\{q∈\mathbf Q:q>0\} X={ q∈Q:q>0} doesn’t have a minimum element.

Exercise 8.1.3

I will prove this Proposition in a complete manner.
Recursively define a sequence of natural numbers $a_0,a_1,a_2,\dots$ using the formula below:
a n ≔ min ⁡ { x ∈ X : ∀ m < n , x ≠ a m } a_n≔\min \{x∈X:∀m<n,x≠a_m \} an​:=min{ x∈X:∀m<n,x​=am​}
Since $X$ is infinite, the set { x ∈ X : ∀ m < n , x ≠ a m } \{x∈X:∀m<n,x≠a_m \} { x∈X:∀m<n,x​=am​} should also be infinite, assume not, then for some n this set is finite, and { a 0 , a 1 , … , a n − 1 } \{a_0,a_1,…,a_{n-1} \} { a0​,a1​,…,an−1​} is finite, by
X = { x ∈ X : ∀ m < n , x ≠ a m } ∪ { a 0 , a 1 , … , a n − 1 } X=\{x∈X:∀m<n,x≠a_m \}∪\{a_0,a_1,…,a_{n-1} \} X={ x∈X:∀m<n,x​=am​}∪{ a0​,a1​,…,an−1​}
We deduce $X$ is finite, which is a contradiction.
Since { x ∈ X : ∀ m < n , x ≠ a m } \{x∈X:∀m<n,x≠a_m \} { x∈X:∀m<n,x​=am​} is infinite, it’s not empty for every $n$, so we can successfully define min ⁡ ⁡ { x ∈ X : ∀ m < n , x ≠ a m } \min⁡\{x∈X:∀m<n,x≠a_m \} min⁡{ x∈X:∀m<n,x​=am​