3、测地线方程
测地线方程的导出
在普通空间中,直线的定义为:线上任意相邻两点的切矢量都相互平行的曲线。测地线则是将该定义推广到 n n n维仿射空间
在
n
n
n维空间中,曲线由
n
n
n个参量式描述:
x
μ
=
x
μ
(
λ
)
,
μ
=
1
,
2
,
3
,
…
,
n
x^\mu=x^\mu(\lambda),\ \mu=1,2,3,\dots,n
xμ=xμ(λ), μ=1,2,3,…,n,其中
λ
\lambda
λ为标量型参量。曲线上任意一点的切矢量定义为:
A
μ
≡
d
x
μ
d
λ
A^\mu\equiv \frac{dx^\mu}{d\lambda}
Aμ≡dλdxμ
对于曲线上相邻两点
P
(
x
μ
)
P(x^\mu)
P(xμ)和
Q
(
x
μ
+
d
x
μ
)
Q(x^\mu+dx^\mu)
Q(xμ+dxμ),分别对应切矢量
A
μ
(
P
)
A^\mu(P)
Aμ(P)和
A
μ
(
Q
)
A^\mu(Q)
Aμ(Q),但这两个切矢量却无法直接比较的情况:先将
P
P
P点的切矢量
A
μ
(
P
)
A^\mu(P)
Aμ(P)平移到
Q
Q
Q点,得到
A
μ
(
P
→
Q
)
A^\mu(P\rightarrow Q)
Aμ(P→Q),然后再定义测地线:
A
μ
(
P
→
Q
)
/
/
A
μ
(
Q
)
↔
A
μ
(
Q
)
=
(
1
+
f
(
λ
)
d
λ
)
A
μ
(
P
→
Q
)
A^\mu(P\rightarrow Q)//A^\mu(Q)\leftrightarrow A^\mu(Q)=(1+f(\lambda)d\lambda)A^\mu(P\rightarrow Q)
Aμ(P→Q)//Aμ(Q)↔Aμ(Q)=(1+f(λ)dλ)Aμ(P→Q)
这里已对比例因子
d
λ
d\lambda
dλ进行了展开,并保留到了一阶小量
测地线方程中,
A
μ
(
Q
)
A^\mu(Q)
Aμ(Q)的泰勒展开:
A
μ
(
Q
)
=
A
μ
(
P
)
+
d
A
μ
(
P
)
=
A
μ
(
P
)
+
d
A
μ
(
P
)
d
λ
d
λ
=
d
x
μ
d
λ
+
d
2
x
μ
d
λ
2
d
λ
A^\mu(Q)=A^\mu(P)+dA^\mu(P)\\ =A^\mu(P)+\frac{dA^\mu(P)}{d\lambda}d\lambda\\ =\frac{dx^\mu}{d\lambda}+\frac{d^2 x^\mu}{d\lambda^2}d\lambda
Aμ(Q)=Aμ(P)+dAμ(P)=Aμ(P)+dλdAμ(P)dλ=dλdxμ+dλ2d2xμdλ
(
1
+
f
(
λ
)
d
λ
)
A
μ
(
P
→
Q
)
(1+f(\lambda)d\lambda)A^\mu(P\rightarrow Q)
(1+f(λ)dλ)Aμ(P→Q)的变化:
(
1
+
f
(
λ
)
d
λ
)
A
μ
(
P
→
Q
)
=
(
1
+
f
(
λ
)
d
λ
)
[
A
μ
(
P
)
−
Γ
α
β
μ
(
P
)
A
α
(
P
)
d
x
β
(
P
)
]
=
(
1
+
f
(
λ
)
d
λ
)
[
d
x
μ
d
λ
−
Γ
α
β
μ
d
x
α
d
λ
d
x
β
d
λ
d
λ
]
(1+f(\lambda)d\lambda)A^\mu(P\rightarrow Q)\\ =(1+f(\lambda)d\lambda)[A^\mu(P)-\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}(P)A^\alpha(P)dx^\beta(P)]\\ =(1+f(\lambda)d\lambda)\left[\frac{dx^\mu}{d\lambda}-\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\lambda}\frac{dx^\beta}{d\lambda}d\lambda\right]
(1+f(λ)dλ)Aμ(P→Q)=(1+f(λ)dλ)[Aμ(P)−Γαβμ(P)Aα(P)dxβ(P)]=(1+f(λ)dλ)[dλdxμ−Γαβμdλdxαdλdxβdλ]
由上述两式相等得到:
d
2
x
μ
d
λ
2
+
Γ
α
β
μ
d
x
α
d
λ
d
x
β
d
λ
=
f
(
λ
)
d
x
μ
d
λ
\frac{d^2 x^\mu}{d\lambda^2}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\lambda}\frac{dx^\beta}{d\lambda}=f(\lambda)\frac{dx^\mu}{d\lambda}
dλ2d2xμ+Γαβμdλdxαdλdxβ=f(λ)dλdxμ
此即测地线方程
仿射参量
选择一组特殊的标量型参量
σ
\sigma
σ,即
λ
=
λ
(
σ
)
\lambda=\lambda(\sigma)
λ=λ(σ),使其满足方程:
d
2
σ
d
λ
2
=
f
(
λ
)
d
σ
d
λ
(1)
\frac{d^2\sigma}{d\lambda^2}=f(\lambda)\frac{d\sigma}{d\lambda}\tag{1}
dλ2d2σ=f(λ)dλdσ(1)
此
σ
\sigma
σ称为仿射参量
则此时测地线方程简化为:
d
2
x
μ
d
σ
2
+
Γ
α
β
μ
d
x
α
d
σ
d
x
β
d
σ
=
0
\frac{d^2 x^\mu}{d\sigma^2}+\Gamma^{\mu}_{\alpha\beta}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\sigma}\frac{dx^\beta}{d\sigma}=0
dσ2d2xμ+Γαβμdσdxαdσdxβ=0
仿射参量的性质
(1)由上述定义可知,当采取仿射参量时,有 f ( σ ) = 0 f(\sigma)=0 f(σ)=0,即测地线条件变为: A μ ( Q ) = A μ ( P → Q ) A^\mu(Q)=A^\mu(P\rightarrow Q) Aμ(Q)=Aμ(P→Q),这里 A μ ≡ d x μ d σ A^\mu\equiv\dfrac{dx^\mu}{d\sigma} Aμ≡dσdxμ
(2)仿射参量并不唯一,若 σ \sigma σ和 σ ~ \tilde\sigma σ~是两种不同的仿射参量,则由关系式(1)可知(取 σ = σ , λ = σ ~ \sigma=\sigma,\ \lambda=\tilde\sigma σ=σ, λ=σ~),其变换满足 d 2 σ d σ ~ 2 = 0 \dfrac{d^2\sigma}{d\tilde\sigma^2}=0 dσ~2d2σ=0,是线性变换
4、曲率张量
描述空间性质的张量
联络虽然是描述空间性质的重要参量,但却不是张量。因此,使用挠率张量和曲率张量来描述空间的性质
挠率张量用于描述空间的扭曲程度:
Γ
[
μ
ν
]
λ
≡
1
2
[
Γ
μ
ν
λ
−
Γ
ν
μ
λ
]
\Gamma^\lambda_{[\mu\nu]}\equiv \frac{1}{2}[\Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\nu}-\Gamma^\lambda_{\nu\mu}]
Γ[μν]λ≡21[Γμνλ−Γνμλ]
曲率张量用于描述空间的弯曲程度:
R
μ
ν
λ
ρ
=
−
Γ
μ
ν
,
λ
ρ
+
Γ
μ
λ
,
ν
ρ
+
Γ
μ
λ
σ
Γ
σ
ν
ρ
−
Γ
μ
ν
σ
Γ
σ
λ
ρ
R^\rho_{\mu\nu\lambda}=-\Gamma^\rho_{\mu\nu,\lambda}+\Gamma^\rho_{\mu\lambda,\nu}+\Gamma^\sigma_{\mu\lambda}\Gamma^\rho_{\sigma\nu}-\Gamma^\sigma_{\mu\nu}\Gamma^\rho_{\sigma\lambda}
Rμνλρ=−Γμν,λρ+Γμλ,νρ+ΓμλσΓσνρ−ΓμνσΓσλρ
曲率张量的引入
计算协变矢量场的二阶协变微分,最后可以整理成:
T
μ
;
[
ν
;
λ
]
≡
1
2
[
T
μ
;
ν
;
λ
−
T
μ
;
λ
;
ν
]
≡
1
2
(
M
−
H
)
T_{\mu;[\nu;\lambda]}\equiv\frac{1}{2}[T_{\mu;\nu;\lambda}-T_{\mu;\lambda;\nu}]\equiv \frac{1}{2}(M-H)
Tμ;[ν;λ]≡21[Tμ;ν;λ−Tμ;λ;ν]≡21(M−H)
其中:
M
≡
T
μ
;
ν
;
λ
=
(
T
μ
;
ν
)
;
λ
=
T
μ
;
ν
,
λ
−
T
μ
λ
ρ
T
ρ
;
ν
−
T
ν
λ
ρ
T
μ
;
ρ
=
(
T
μ
,
ν
−
Γ
μ
ν
σ
T
σ
)
,
λ
−
Γ
μ
λ
ρ
(
T
ρ
,
ν
−
Γ
ρ
ν
σ
T
σ
)
−
Γ
ν
λ
ρ
T
μ
;
ρ
=
T
μ
,
ν
,
λ
−
Γ
μ
ν
,
λ
σ
T
σ
−
Γ
μ
ν
σ
T
σ
,
λ
−
Γ
μ
λ
ρ
T
ρ
,
ν
+
Γ
μ
λ
ρ
Γ
ρ
ν
σ
T
σ
−
Γ
ν
λ
ρ
T
μ
;
ρ
\begin{aligned} M&\equiv T_{\mu;\nu;\lambda}=(T_{\mu;\nu})_{;\lambda}=T_{\mu;\nu,\lambda}-T^\rho_{\mu\lambda}T_{\rho;\nu}-T^\rho_{\nu\lambda}T_{\mu;\rho}\\ &=(T_{\mu,\nu}-\Gamma^\sigma_{\mu\nu}T_\sigma)_{,\lambda}-\Gamma^\rho_{\mu\lambda}(T_{\rho,\nu}-\Gamma^\sigma_{\rho\nu}T_\sigma)-\Gamma^\rho_{\nu\lambda}T_{\mu;\rho}\\ &=T_{\mu,\nu,\lambda}-\Gamma^\sigma_{\mu\nu,\lambda}T_\sigma-\Gamma^\sigma_{\mu\nu}T_{\sigma,\lambda}-\Gamma^\rho_{\mu\lambda}T_{\rho,\nu}+\Gamma^\rho_{\mu\lambda}\Gamma^\sigma_{\rho\nu}T_\sigma-\Gamma^\rho_{\nu\lambda}T_{\mu;\rho} \end{aligned}
M≡Tμ;ν;λ=(Tμ;ν);λ=Tμ;ν,λ−TμλρTρ;ν−TνλρTμ;ρ=(Tμ,ν−ΓμνσTσ),λ−Γμλρ(Tρ,ν−ΓρνσTσ)−ΓνλρTμ;ρ=Tμ,ν,λ−Γμν,λσTσ−ΓμνσTσ,λ−ΓμλρTρ,ν+ΓμλρΓρνσTσ−ΓνλρTμ;ρ
H ≡ T μ ; λ ; ν = T μ , λ , ν − Γ μ λ , ν σ T σ − Γ μ λ σ T σ , ν − Γ μ ν ρ T ρ , λ + Γ μ ν ρ Γ ρ λ σ T σ − Γ λ ν ρ T μ ; ρ \begin{aligned} H&\equiv T_{\mu;\lambda;\nu}\\ &= T_{\mu,\lambda,\nu}-\Gamma^\sigma_{\mu\lambda,\nu}T_\sigma-\Gamma^\sigma_{\mu\lambda}T_{\sigma,\nu}-\Gamma^\rho_{\mu\nu}T_{\rho,\lambda}+\Gamma^\rho_{\mu\nu}\Gamma^\sigma_{\rho\lambda}T_\sigma-\Gamma^\rho_{\lambda\nu}T_{\mu;\rho} \end{aligned} H≡Tμ;λ;ν=Tμ,λ,ν−Γμλ,νσTσ−ΓμλσTσ,ν−ΓμνρTρ,λ+ΓμνρΓρλσTσ−ΓλνρTμ;ρ
逐项相互抵消后,得到:
T
μ
;
[
ν
;
λ
]
=
1
2
(
R
μ
ν
λ
ρ
T
ρ
−
2
Γ
[
ν
λ
]
ρ
T
μ
;
ρ
)
T_{\mu;[\nu;\lambda]}=\frac{1}{2}(R^\rho_{\mu\nu\lambda}T_\rho-2\Gamma^\rho_{[\nu\lambda]}T_{\mu;\rho})
Tμ;[ν;λ]=21(RμνλρTρ−2Γ[νλ]ρTμ;ρ)
R
μ
ν
λ
ρ
R^\rho_{\mu\nu\lambda}
Rμνλρ即为曲率张量:
R
μ
ν
λ
ρ
=
−
Γ
μ
ν
,
λ
ρ
+
Γ
μ
λ
,
ν
ρ
+
Γ
μ
λ
σ
Γ
σ
ν
ρ
−
Γ
μ
ν
σ
Γ
σ
λ
ρ
R^\rho_{\mu\nu\lambda}=-\Gamma^\rho_{\mu\nu,\lambda}+\Gamma^\rho_{\mu\lambda,\nu}+\Gamma^\sigma_{\mu\lambda}\Gamma^\rho_{\sigma\nu}-\Gamma^\sigma_{\mu\nu}\Gamma^\rho_{\sigma\lambda}
Rμνλρ=−Γμν,λρ+Γμλ,νρ+ΓμλσΓσνρ−ΓμνσΓσλρ
曲率张量的性质
(1) R μ ν λ ρ = − R μ λ ν ρ R^\rho_{\mu\nu\lambda}=-R^\rho_{\mu\lambda\nu} Rμνλρ=−Rμλνρ,指标 ν \nu ν和 λ \lambda λ反对称
(2)曲率张量有两种缩并的方式: A μ ν ≡ R λ μ ν λ A_{\mu\nu}\equiv R^\lambda_{\lambda\mu\nu} Aμν≡Rλμνλ和 R μ ν ≡ R μ ν λ λ R_{\mu\nu}\equiv R^\lambda_{\mu\nu\lambda} Rμν≡Rμνλλ
(3)曲率和挠率共同刻画了空间弯曲的情况,若在空间某区域 V V V内,曲率张量和挠率张量恒为零,则总能找到一个合适的坐标系 x μ x^\mu xμ,使得 Γ μ ν λ = 0 \Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\nu}=0 Γμνλ=0,此时测地线方程变为 d 2 x μ d σ 2 = 0 \dfrac{d^2x^\mu}{d\sigma^2}=0 dσ2d2xμ=0,即直线,表明空间 V V V平坦。曲率和挠率张量是否都为零,是空间是否平坦的标志
5、黎曼空间与度规张量
黎曼空间
在仿射空间中引入度规和不变距离,则构成黎曼空间,定义空间相邻两点的距离
d
s
ds
ds:
d
s
2
=
g
μ
ν
d
x
μ
d
x
ν
=
g
(
μ
ν
)
d
x
μ
d
x
ν
+
g
[
μ
ν
]
d
x
μ
d
x
ν
≡
−
d
τ
2
ds^2=g_{\mu\nu}dx^\mu dx^\nu=g_{(\mu\nu)}dx^\mu dx^\nu+g_{[\mu\nu]}dx^\mu dx^\nu\equiv -d\tau^2
ds2=gμνdxμdxν=g(μν)dxμdxν+g[μν]dxμdxν≡−dτ2
其中, τ \tau τ为四维时空的固有时
规定:
(1) d s ds ds是标量,与坐标选择无关 → \rightarrow → g μ ν g_{\mu\nu} gμν是二阶协变张量,即度规张量
(2) g μ ν g_{\mu\nu} gμν是对称张量, g [ μ ν ] = 0 g_{[\mu\nu]}=0 g[μν]=0。因为 g μ ν g_{\mu\nu} gμν的反对称组合对 d s ds ds无贡献,无法定义
在仿射空间中确定了度规后,空间任意两点间的距离就有了意义,这样的空间称为黎曼空间
平坦的黎曼空间
对于一个黎曼空间,如果能够适当地选取坐标系,使得度规张量具有如下形式:
g
μ
ν
=
{
±
1
,
μ
=
ν
0
,
μ
≠
ν
(2)
g_{\mu\nu}= \left\{\begin{aligned} &\pm 1,\ \mu=\nu\\ &0,\ \mu\neq\nu \end{aligned}\right.\tag{2}
gμν={±1, μ=ν0, μ=ν(2)
则这个空间是平坦的黎曼空间。欧氏空间和闵氏空间都是平坦的
例如,在三维欧式空间中:
(
x
1
=
x
,
x
2
=
y
,
x
3
=
z
)
d
s
2
=
d
x
2
+
d
y
2
+
d
z
2
g
μ
ν
=
(
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
)
(x^1=x,\ x^2=y,\ x^3=z)\\ ds^2=dx^2+dy^2+dz^2\\ g_{\mu\nu}=\left(\begin{matrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & 1 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{matrix}\right)
(x1=x, x2=y, x3=z)ds2=dx2+dy2+dz2gμν=⎝⎛100010001⎠⎞
球坐标:
(
x
1
=
r
,
x
2
=
θ
,
x
3
=
φ
)
d
s
2
=
d
r
2
+
r
2
d
θ
2
+
r
2
sin
2
θ
d
φ
2
g
μ
ν
=
(
1
0
0
0
r
2
0
0
0
r
2
sin
2
θ
)
(x^1=r,\ x^2=\theta,\ x^3=\varphi)\\ ds^2=dr^2+r^2 d\theta^2+r^2\sin^2\theta d\varphi^2\\ g_{\mu\nu}=\left(\begin{matrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & r^2 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & r^2\sin^2\theta \end{matrix}\right)
(x1=r, x2=θ, x3=φ)ds2=dr2+r2dθ2+r2sin2θdφ2gμν=⎝⎛1000r2000r2sin2θ⎠⎞
**定理:**对于常系数的二次型
d
s
2
=
g
μ
ν
d
x
μ
d
x
ν
ds^2=g_{\mu\nu}dx^\mu dx^\nu
ds2=gμνdxμdxν,只要
det
∣
g
μ
ν
∣
≠
0
\det|g_{\mu\nu}|\neq 0
det∣gμν∣=0,则必能找到坐标变换,把这个二次型化为坐标微分的平方和(差),即坐标变换后满足式(2)
黎曼空间中,每一点都可以看做是平坦的。一般 g μ ν g_{\mu\nu} gμν不是常数,但对于空间中任一 P P P点, g μ ν g_{\mu\nu} gμν总是常数,因此在该点的度规 g μ ν ( P ) g_{\mu\nu}(P) gμν(P)总是可以化成式(2)的形式
黎曼空间中张量指标的升降
在黎曼空间中,有了度规 g μ ν g_{\mu\nu} gμν,就可以用这个度规来升降张量的指标:
(1)当 det ∣ g μ ν ∣ ≠ 0 \det|g_{\mu\nu}|\neq 0 det∣gμν∣=0时,定义逆变的度规张量 g μ ν g^{\mu\nu} gμν,满足 g μ ν g ν λ = δ λ μ g^{\mu\nu}g_{\nu\lambda}=\delta^\mu_\lambda gμνgνλ=δλμ
(2)用
g
μ
ν
g_{\mu\nu}
gμν降指标,用
g
μ
ν
g^{\mu\nu}
gμν升指标,例如:
T
μ
≡
g
μ
ν
T
ν
,
T
μ
ν
≡
g
μ
α
T
α
ν
,
T
μ
≡
g
μ
ν
T
ν
,
T
μ
ν
≡
g
μ
α
T
α
ν
T_\mu\equiv g_{\mu\nu}T^\nu,\ T_{\mu\nu}\equiv g_{\mu\alpha}{T^\alpha}_\nu,\ T^\mu\equiv g^{\mu\nu}T_\nu,\ T^{\mu\nu}\equiv g^{\mu\alpha}{T_\alpha}^\nu
Tμ≡gμνTν, Tμν≡gμαTαν, Tμ≡gμνTν, Tμν≡gμαTαν
黎曼空间的新特点就在于,可以利用度规张量,把任意张量形式的物理量或几何量,表示成逆变的、协变的、或者混合的形式
举例:
(1)定义矢量长度,
A
μ
→
A^\mu\rightarrow
Aμ→它的长度
长
度
的
平
方
←
g
μ
ν
T
μ
T
ν
=
T
μ
T
μ
=
g
μ
ν
T
μ
T
ν
长度的平方\leftarrow g_{\mu\nu}T^\mu T^\nu=T_\mu T^\mu = g^{\mu\nu}T_\mu T_\nu
长度的平方←gμνTμTν=TμTμ=gμνTμTν
(2)
d
s
2
=
g
μ
ν
d
x
μ
d
x
ν
=
d
x
ν
d
x
ν
=
δ
ν
μ
d
x
μ
d
x
ν
=
g
μ
ν
d
x
μ
d
x
ν
ds^2=g_{\mu\nu}dx^\mu dx^\nu= dx_\nu dx^\nu =\delta^\mu_\nu dx_\mu dx^\nu=g^{\mu\nu}dx_\mu dx_\nu
ds2=gμνdxμdxν=dxνdxν=δνμdxμdxν=gμνdxμdxν
6、Christoffel联络与黎曼空间中的测地线
Christoffel联络
Christoffel联络的定义,是在仿射联络的基础上再加上两个条件:
(1)要求在黎曼空间中,平移操作保证矢量的长度不变
(2)采取对称联络 Γ μ ν λ = Γ ν μ λ \Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\nu}=\Gamma^\lambda_{\nu\mu} Γμνλ=Γνμλ,即挠率为零。GR采用它,因此之后的讨论全部采用对称联络
对于
P
P
P点的逆变矢量
A
μ
(
P
)
→
Q
A^\mu(P)\rightarrow Q
Aμ(P)→Q点变成
A
μ
(
P
→
Q
)
A^\mu(P\rightarrow Q)
Aμ(P→Q)(借助联络平移):
A
μ
(
P
→
Q
)
=
A
μ
(
P
)
−
Γ
ν
λ
μ
(
P
)
A
ν
(
P
)
d
x
λ
A^\mu(P\rightarrow Q)=A^\mu(P)-\Gamma^\mu_{\nu\lambda}(P)A^\nu(P)dx^\lambda
Aμ(P→Q)=Aμ(P)−Γνλμ(P)Aν(P)dxλ
矢量平移前后长度相等要求:
g
μ
ν
(
Q
)
A
μ
(
P
→
Q
)
A
ν
(
P
→
Q
)
=
g
μ
ν
(
P
)
A
μ
(
P
)
A
ν
(
P
)
g_{\mu\nu}(Q)A^\mu(P\rightarrow Q)A^\nu(P\rightarrow Q)=g_{\mu\nu}(P)A^\mu(P)A^\nu(P)
gμν(Q)Aμ(P→Q)Aν(P→Q)=gμν(P)Aμ(P)Aν(P)
结合度规场的微分公式:
g
μ
ν
(
Q
)
=
g
μ
ν
(
P
)
+
g
μ
ν
,
λ
(
P
)
d
x
λ
g_{\mu\nu}(Q)=g_{\mu\nu}(P)+g_{\mu\nu,\lambda}(P)dx^\lambda
gμν(Q)=gμν(P)+gμν,λ(P)dxλ
可以得到能保持长度的联络所必须满足的方程:
g
μ
ν
,
λ
−
g
α
ν
Γ
μ
λ
α
−
g
μ
α
Γ
ν
λ
α
=
0
g_{\mu\nu,\lambda}-g_{\alpha\nu}\Gamma^\alpha_{\mu\lambda}-g_{\mu\alpha}\Gamma^\alpha_{\nu\lambda}=0
gμν,λ−gανΓμλα−gμαΓνλα=0
可以用度规来表示克氏联络:
g
μ
ν
,
λ
−
g
α
ν
Γ
μ
λ
α
−
g
μ
α
Γ
ν
λ
α
=
0
→
Γ
λ
μ
κ
=
1
2
g
ν
κ
(
g
μ
ν
,
λ
+
g
ν
λ
,
μ
−
g
λ
μ
,
ν
)
g_{\mu\nu,\lambda}-g_{\alpha\nu}\Gamma^\alpha_{\mu\lambda}-g_{\mu\alpha}\Gamma^\alpha_{\nu\lambda}=0\rightarrow \Gamma^\kappa_{\lambda\mu}=\frac{1}{2}g^{\nu\kappa}(g_{\mu\nu,\lambda}+g_{\nu\lambda,\mu}-g_{\lambda\mu,\nu})
gμν,λ−gανΓμλα−gμαΓνλα=0→Γλμκ=21gνκ(gμν,λ+gνλ,μ−gλμ,ν)
证明:(可以用度规来表示克氏联络)
g
μ
ν
,
λ
−
g
α
ν
Γ
μ
λ
α
−
g
μ
α
Γ
ν
λ
α
=
0
(1)
g_{\mu\nu,\lambda}-g_{\alpha\nu}\Gamma^\alpha_{\mu\lambda}-g_{\mu\alpha}\Gamma^\alpha_{\nu\lambda}=0\tag{1}
gμν,λ−gανΓμλα−gμαΓνλα=0(1)
进行下标轮换
μ
→
ν
,
ν
→
λ
,
λ
→
μ
\mu\rightarrow \nu,\ \nu\rightarrow \lambda,\ \lambda\rightarrow \mu
μ→ν, ν→λ, λ→μ:
g
ν
λ
,
μ
−
g
α
λ
Γ
ν
μ
α
−
g
ν
α
Γ
λ
ν
α
=
0
(2)
g_{\nu\lambda,\mu}-g_{\alpha\lambda}\Gamma^\alpha_{\nu\mu}-g_{\nu\alpha}\Gamma^\alpha_{\lambda\nu}=0\tag{2}
gνλ,μ−gαλΓνμα−gναΓλνα=0(2)
继续进行下标轮换
μ
→
ν
,
ν
→
λ
,
λ
→
μ
\mu\rightarrow \nu,\ \nu\rightarrow \lambda,\ \lambda\rightarrow \mu
μ→ν, ν→λ, λ→μ:
g
λ
μ
,
ν
−
g
α
μ
Γ
λ
ν
α
−
g
λ
α
Γ
μ
ν
α
=
0
(3)
g_{\lambda\mu,\nu}-g_{\alpha\mu}\Gamma^\alpha_{\lambda\nu}-g_{\lambda\alpha}\Gamma^\alpha_{\mu\nu}=0\tag{3}
gλμ,ν−gαμΓλνα−gλαΓμνα=0(3)
(1)+(2)-(3),得到:
(
g
μ
ν
,
λ
+
g
ν
λ
,
μ
−
g
λ
μ
,
ν
)
+
(
−
g
α
ν
Γ
μ
λ
α
−
g
μ
α
Γ
ν
λ
α
−
g
α
λ
Γ
ν
μ
α
−
g
ν
α
Γ
λ
μ
α
+
g
α
μ
Γ
λ
ν
α
+
g
λ
α
Γ
μ
ν
α
)
=
0
\begin{aligned} &(g_{\mu\nu,\lambda}+g_{\nu\lambda,\mu}-g_{\lambda\mu,\nu})+(-g_{\alpha\nu}\Gamma^\alpha_{\mu\lambda}-g_{\mu\alpha}\Gamma^\alpha_{\nu\lambda}-g_{\alpha\lambda}\Gamma^\alpha_{\nu\mu}\\ &-g_{\nu\alpha}\Gamma^{\alpha}_{\lambda\mu}+g_{\alpha\mu}\Gamma^\alpha_{\lambda\nu}+g_{\lambda\alpha}\Gamma^\alpha_{\mu\nu})=0 \end{aligned}
(gμν,λ+gνλ,μ−gλμ,ν)+(−gανΓμλα−gμαΓνλα−gαλΓνμα−gναΓλμα+gαμΓλνα+gλαΓμνα)=0
最后得到:
g
α
ν
Γ
λ
μ
α
=
1
2
(
g
μ
ν
,
λ
+
g
ν
λ
,
μ
−
g
λ
μ
,
ν
)
g
ν
κ
g
α
ν
Γ
λ
μ
α
=
1
2
(
g
μ
ν
,
λ
+
g
ν
λ
,
μ
−
g
λ
μ
,
ν
)
g
ν
κ
Γ
λ
μ
κ
=
1
2
g
ν
κ
(
g
μ
ν
,
λ
+
g
ν
λ
,
μ
−
g
λ
μ
,
ν
)
g_{\alpha\nu}\Gamma^\alpha_{\lambda\mu}=\frac{1}{2}(g_{\mu\nu, \lambda}+g_{\nu\lambda,\mu}-g_{\lambda\mu,\nu})\\ g^{\nu\kappa}g_{\alpha\nu}\Gamma^\alpha_{\lambda\mu}=\frac{1}{2}(g_{\mu\nu, \lambda}+g_{\nu\lambda,\mu}-g_{\lambda\mu,\nu})g^{\nu\kappa}\\ \Gamma^\kappa_{\lambda\mu}=\frac{1}{2}g^{\nu\kappa}(g_{\mu\nu,\lambda}+g_{\nu\lambda,\mu}-g_{\lambda\mu,\nu})
gανΓλμα=21(gμν,λ+gνλ,μ−gλμ,ν)gνκgανΓλμα=21(gμν,λ+gνλ,μ−gλμ,ν)gνκΓλμκ=21gνκ(gμν,λ+gνλ,μ−gλμ,ν)
QED.
度规张量的协变微分:
g
μ
ν
;
λ
=
g
μ
ν
,
λ
−
g
α
ν
Γ
μ
λ
α
−
g
μ
α
Γ
ν
λ
α
=
0
g_{\mu\nu;\lambda}=g_{\mu\nu,\lambda}-g_{\alpha\nu}\Gamma^\alpha_{\mu\lambda}-g_{\mu\alpha}\Gamma^\alpha_{\nu\lambda}=0
gμν;λ=gμν,λ−gανΓμλα−gμαΓνλα=0
GR中等效原理的数学基础
对于在坐标 x μ x^\mu xμ下 P P P点的联络 ( Γ μ ν λ ) P (\Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\nu})_P (Γμνλ)P,总可以找到坐标变换 x μ → x ~ μ x^\mu\rightarrow \tilde x^\mu xμ→x~μ,使得 ( Γ ~ μ ν γ ) P = 0 (\tilde \Gamma^\gamma_{\mu\nu})_P=0 (Γ~μνγ)P=0
证明:
定义坐标变换,在
P
P
P点的邻域内,使其满足:
x
μ
−
x
P
μ
=
(
x
~
μ
−
x
~
P
μ
)
−
1
2
Γ
α
β
μ
(
x
~
α
−
x
~
P
α
)
(
x
~
β
−
x
~
P
β
)
x^\mu-x^\mu_P=(\tilde x^\mu-\tilde x^\mu_P)-\frac{1}{2}\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}(\tilde x^\alpha-\tilde x_P^\alpha)(\tilde x^\beta-\tilde x_P^\beta)
xμ−xPμ=(x~μ−x~Pμ)−21Γαβμ(x~α−x~Pα)(x~β−x~Pβ)
令
x
~
P
μ
=
0
\tilde x^\mu_P=0
x~Pμ=0,则有:
x
μ
−
x
P
μ
=
x
~
μ
−
1
2
Γ
α
β
μ
x
~
α
x
~
β
x^\mu-x^\mu_P=\tilde x^\mu-\frac{1}{2}\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\tilde x^\alpha\tilde x^\beta
xμ−xPμ=x~μ−21Γαβμx~αx~β
( ∂ x μ ∂ x ~ λ ) P = δ λ μ , ( ∂ x ~ μ ∂ x λ ) P = δ λ μ , ( ∂ 2 x μ ∂ x ~ λ ∂ x ~ ν ) P = − Γ λ ν μ \left(\frac{\partial x^\mu}{\partial\tilde x^\lambda}\right)_P=\delta^\mu_\lambda,\ \left(\frac{\partial \tilde x^\mu}{\partial x^\lambda}\right)_P=\delta^\mu_\lambda,\ \left(\frac{\partial^2 x^\mu}{\partial \tilde x^\lambda\partial \tilde x^\nu}\right)_P=-\Gamma^\mu_{\lambda\nu} (∂x~λ∂xμ)P=δλμ, (∂xλ∂x~μ)P=δλμ, (∂x~λ∂x~ν∂2xμ)P=−Γλνμ
所以在坐标变换下,
Γ
α
β
μ
\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}
Γαβμ的变换关系为:
Γ
~
μ
ν
λ
=
∂
2
x
β
∂
x
~
μ
∂
x
~
ν
∂
x
~
μ
∂
x
β
+
∂
x
α
∂
x
~
μ
∂
x
~
λ
∂
x
β
∂
x
σ
∂
x
~
ν
Γ
α
σ
β
=
−
Γ
μ
ν
β
δ
β
λ
+
Γ
α
σ
β
δ
μ
α
δ
ν
σ
δ
β
λ
=
−
Γ
μ
ν
λ
+
Γ
μ
ν
λ
=
0
\begin{aligned} \tilde\Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\nu}&=\frac{\partial^2 x^\beta}{\partial\tilde x^\mu\partial \tilde x^\nu}\frac{\partial\tilde x^\mu}{\partial x^\beta}+\frac{\partial x^\alpha}{\partial \tilde x^\mu}\frac{\partial \tilde x^\lambda}{\partial x^\beta}\frac{\partial x^\sigma}{\partial \tilde x^\nu}\Gamma^\beta_{\alpha\sigma}\\ &=-\Gamma^\beta_{\mu\nu}\delta^\lambda_\beta+\Gamma^\beta_{\alpha\sigma}\delta^\alpha_\mu\delta^\sigma_\nu\delta^\lambda_\beta\\ &=-\Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\nu}+\Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\nu}\\ &=0 \end{aligned}
Γ~μνλ=∂x~μ∂x~ν∂2xβ∂xβ∂x~μ+∂x~μ∂xα∂xβ∂x~λ∂x~ν∂xσΓασβ=−Γμνβδβλ+Γασβδμαδνσδβλ=−Γμνλ+Γμνλ=0
QED.
忽略掉 p p p阶导数时, ( g ~ μ ν , λ ) p = 0 → g ~ μ ν = c o n s t (\tilde g_{\mu\nu,\lambda})_p=0\rightarrow \tilde g_{\mu\nu}=const (g~μν,λ)p=0→g~μν=const,平坦(等效原理)
黎曼空间中的测地线
在仿射空间中,测地线方程为:
d
2
x
μ
d
λ
2
+
Γ
α
β
μ
d
x
α
d
λ
d
x
β
d
λ
=
f
(
λ
)
d
x
μ
d
λ
\frac{d^2 x^\mu}{d\lambda^2}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\lambda}\frac{dx^\beta}{d\lambda}=f(\lambda)\frac{dx^\mu}{d\lambda}
dλ2d2xμ+Γαβμdλdxαdλdxβ=f(λ)dλdxμ
d 2 x μ d σ 2 + Γ α β μ d x α d σ d x β d σ = 0 \frac{d^2 x^\mu}{d\sigma^2}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\sigma}\frac{dx^\beta}{d\sigma}=0 dσ2d2xμ+Γαβμdσdxαdσdxβ=0
在GR中,自由粒子在弯曲时空中走的是测地线
在黎曼空间中,引入了线元 s s s(原时 τ \tau τ),即 d s 2 = g μ ν d x μ d x ν ds^2=g_{\mu\nu}dx^\mu dx^\nu ds2=gμνdxμdxν,因此对任一曲线,可以引入一个标量积分 s = ∫ P 0 P d s s=\int^P_{P_0}ds s=∫P0Pds,其中 P 0 P_0 P0是某个固定点, P P P是任意点,则 s s s是曲线上 P 0 P_0 P0到 P P P的“固有长度”
在黎曼空间中, s s s(等价的 τ \tau τ)就是一个仿射参量(仅对有质量粒子而言,因为对于无质量粒子, s = 0 s=0 s=0无意义)
证明:
s
s
s(或
τ
\tau
τ)作为标量型参量,则曲线
x
μ
(
s
)
x^\mu(s)
xμ(s)的切矢量
U
μ
U^\mu
Uμ:
U
μ
≡
d
x
μ
d
τ
U^\mu\equiv\frac{dx^\mu}{d\tau}
Uμ≡dτdxμ
d s 2 = g μ ν d x μ d x ν = − d τ 2 ds^2=g_{\mu\nu}dx^\mu dx^\nu=-d\tau^2 ds2=gμνdxμdxν=−dτ2
上式两端同除
d
τ
2
d\tau^2
dτ2:
g
μ
ν
d
x
μ
d
τ
d
x
ν
d
τ
=
g
μ
ν
U
μ
U
ν
=
−
1
g_{\mu\nu}\frac{dx^\mu}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\nu}{d\tau}=g_{\mu\nu}U^\mu U^\nu =-1
gμνdτdxμdτdxν=gμνUμUν=−1
对
λ
\lambda
λ求微分:
g
μ
ν
;
λ
U
μ
U
ν
+
g
μ
ν
U
;
λ
μ
U
ν
+
g
μ
ν
U
μ
U
;
λ
ν
=
0
g_{\mu\nu;\lambda}U^\mu U^\nu+g_{\mu\nu}U^\mu_{;\lambda}U^\nu+g_{\mu\nu}U^\mu U^\nu_{;\lambda}=0
gμν;λUμUν+gμνU;λμUν+gμνUμU;λν=0
其中,第一项为0,从而得到:
U
ν
;
λ
U
ν
+
U
ν
U
;
λ
ν
=
0
U
ν
U
;
λ
ν
=
0
U_{\nu;\lambda}U^\nu+U_\nu U^\nu_{;\lambda}=0\\ U_\nu U^\nu_{;\lambda}=0
Uν;λUν+UνU;λν=0UνU;λν=0
在测地线方程两端乘上
U
μ
U_\mu
Uμ,得到:
f
(
τ
)
=
−
U
μ
{
d
U
μ
d
τ
+
Γ
α
β
μ
U
α
U
β
}
=
−
U
μ
{
d
U
μ
d
x
β
d
x
β
d
τ
+
Γ
α
β
μ
U
α
U
β
}
=
−
U
μ
(
U
,
β
μ
U
β
+
Γ
α
β
μ
U
α
U
β
)
=
−
U
μ
U
β
(
U
,
β
μ
+
Γ
α
β
μ
U
α
)
=
−
U
μ
U
;
β
μ
U
β
=
0
\begin{aligned} f(\tau)&=-U_\mu\left\{\frac{dU^\mu}{d\tau}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}U^\alpha U^\beta\right\}\\ &=-U_\mu\left\{\frac{dU^\mu}{dx^\beta}\frac{dx^\beta}{d\tau}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}U^\alpha U^\beta\right\}\\ &=-U_\mu(U^\mu_{,\beta}U^\beta+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}U^\alpha U^\beta)\\ &=-U_\mu U^\beta(U^\mu_{,\beta}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}U^\alpha)\\ &=-U_\mu U^\mu_{;\beta}U^\beta\\ &=0 \end{aligned}
f(τ)=−Uμ{dτdUμ+ΓαβμUαUβ}=−Uμ{dxβdUμdτdxβ+ΓαβμUαUβ}=−Uμ(U,βμUβ+ΓαβμUαUβ)=−UμUβ(U,βμ+ΓαβμUα)=−UμU;βμUβ=0
由此得到黎曼空间中的测地线方程:
d
2
x
μ
d
τ
2
+
Γ
α
β
μ
d
x
α
d
τ
d
x
β
d
τ
=
0
\frac{d^2 x^\mu}{d\tau^2}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\beta}{d\tau}=0
dτ2d2xμ+Γαβμdτdxαdτdxβ=0
QED.
此为有质量粒子的运动方程。对于无质量粒子,随便找一个仿射参量
测地线的另一重含义
已知在仿射空间中,线上相邻两点的切矢量都相互平行的曲线为测地线。欧氏空间中,两点之间直线最短。可以证明:对黎曼空间中任意两点间的距离,测地线是最短或最长的
简单证明:
测地线方程的变分为零:
δ
∫
d
s
=
0
δ
∫
(
g
μ
ν
d
x
μ
d
x
ν
)
1
2
=
0
δ
∫
(
g
μ
ν
x
˙
μ
x
˙
ν
)
1
2
d
s
=
0
\begin{aligned} \delta\int ds&=0\\ \delta\int (g_{\mu\nu}dx^\mu dx^\nu)^\frac{1}{2} &=0\\ \delta\int (g_{\mu\nu}\dot x^\mu \dot x^\nu)^\frac{1}{2}ds&=0 \end{aligned}
δ∫dsδ∫(gμνdxμdxν)21δ∫(gμνx˙μx˙ν)21ds=0=0=0
其中,
x
˙
μ
≡
d
x
μ
d
s
\dot x^\mu\equiv \dfrac{dx^\mu}{ds}
x˙μ≡dsdxμ
拉氏量
L
=
(
g
μ
ν
x
˙
μ
x
˙
ν
)
1
2
\mathcal L=(g_{\mu\nu}\dot x^\mu\dot x^\nu)^\frac{1}{2}
L=(gμνx˙μx˙ν)21,拉格朗日方程:
∂
L
∂
x
λ
−
d
d
s
∂
L
∂
x
˙
λ
=
0
∂
g
μ
ν
∂
x
λ
x
˙
μ
x
˙
ν
−
d
d
s
(
g
μ
ν
x
˙
μ
+
g
λ
ν
x
˙
ν
)
=
0
d
d
s
(
g
μ
λ
x
˙
μ
)
=
1
2
∂
g
μ
ν
∂
x
λ
x
˙
μ
x
˙
ν
g
μ
λ
d
2
x
μ
d
s
2
+
(
∂
g
μ
ν
∂
x
ν
−
1
2
∂
g
μ
ν
∂
x
λ
)
d
x
ν
d
s
d
x
μ
d
s
=
0
\begin{aligned} \frac{\partial \mathcal L}{\partial x^\lambda}-\frac{d}{ds}\frac{\partial \mathcal L}{\partial \dot x^\lambda}&=0\\ \frac{\partial g_{\mu\nu}}{\partial x^\lambda} \dot x^\mu\dot x^\nu-\frac{d}{ds}(g_{\mu\nu}\dot x^\mu+g_{\lambda\nu}\dot x^\nu)&=0\\ \frac{d}{ds}(g_{\mu\lambda}\dot x^\mu) &=\frac{1}{2}\frac{\partial g_{\mu\nu}}{\partial x^\lambda}\dot x^\mu\dot x^\nu\\ g_{\mu\lambda}\frac{d^2 x^\mu}{ds^2}+\left(\frac{\partial g_{\mu\nu}}{\partial x^\nu}-\frac{1}{2}\frac{\partial g_{\mu\nu}}{\partial x^\lambda}\right)\frac{dx^\nu}{ds}\frac{dx^\mu}{ds}&=0 \end{aligned}
∂xλ∂L−dsd∂x˙λ∂L∂xλ∂gμνx˙μx˙ν−dsd(gμνx˙μ+gλνx˙ν)dsd(gμλx˙μ)gμλds2d2xμ+(∂xν∂gμν−21∂xλ∂gμν)dsdxνdsdxμ=0=0=21∂xλ∂gμνx˙μx˙ν=0
两端同乘
g
λ
σ
g^{\lambda\sigma}
gλσ:
d
2
x
σ
d
s
2
+
g
λ
σ
(
∂
g
μ
λ
∂
x
ν
−
1
2
∂
g
μ
ν
∂
x
λ
)
d
x
ν
d
s
d
x
μ
d
s
=
0
d
2
x
σ
d
s
2
+
1
2
g
λ
σ
(
2
∂
g
μ
λ
∂
x
ν
−
∂
g
μ
ν
∂
x
λ
)
d
x
ν
d
s
d
x
μ
d
s
=
0
\begin{aligned} \frac{d^2 x^\sigma}{ds^2}+ g^{\lambda\sigma}\left(\frac{\partial g_{\mu\lambda}}{\partial x^\nu}-\frac{1}{2}\frac{\partial g_{\mu\nu}}{\partial x^\lambda}\right)\frac{dx^\nu}{ds}\frac{dx^\mu}{ds}&=0\\ \frac{d^2 x^\sigma}{ds^2}+ \frac{1}{2}g^{\lambda\sigma}\left(2\frac{\partial g_{\mu\lambda}}{\partial x^\nu}-\frac{\partial g_{\mu\nu}}{\partial x^\lambda}\right)\frac{dx^\nu}{ds}\frac{dx^\mu}{ds}&=0 \end{aligned}
ds2d2xσ+gλσ(∂xν∂gμλ−21∂xλ∂gμν)dsdxνdsdxμds2d2xσ+21gλσ(2∂xν∂gμλ−∂xλ∂gμν)dsdxνdsdxμ=0=0
因为
μ
,
ν
\mu,\ \nu
μ, ν对标,所以:
d
2
x
σ
d
s
2
+
1
2
g
λ
σ
(
∂
g
μ
λ
∂
x
ν
+
∂
g
ν
λ
∂
x
μ
−
∂
g
μ
ν
∂
x
λ
)
d
x
ν
d
s
d
x
μ
d
s
=
0
d
2
x
σ
d
s
2
+
Γ
μ
ν
σ
d
x
ν
d
s
d
x
μ
d
s
=
0
\begin{aligned} \frac{d^2 x^\sigma}{ds^2}+\frac{1}{2}g^{\lambda \sigma}\left(\frac{\partial g_{\mu\lambda}}{\partial x^\nu}+\frac{\partial g_{\nu\lambda}}{\partial x^\mu}-\frac{\partial g_{\mu\nu}}{\partial x^\lambda}\right)\frac{dx^\nu}{ds}\frac{dx^\mu}{ds}&=0\\ \frac{d^2 x^\sigma}{ds^2}+\Gamma^\sigma_{\mu\nu}\frac{dx^\nu}{ds}\frac{dx^\mu}{ds}&=0 \end{aligned}
ds2d2xσ+21gλσ(∂xν∂gμλ+∂xμ∂gνλ−∂xλ∂gμν)dsdxνdsdxμds2d2xσ+Γμνσdsdxνdsdxμ=0=0
此即测地线方程
QED.