7、黎曼空间中的曲率张量
定义
黎曼空间中曲率张量的表达式和仿射空间中的一致:
R
λ
μ
ν
ρ
=
−
Γ
λ
μ
,
ν
ρ
+
Γ
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ν
,
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−
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+
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R^\rho_{\lambda\mu\nu}=-\Gamma^\rho_{\lambda\mu,\nu}+\Gamma^\rho_{\lambda\nu,\mu}-\Gamma^\sigma_{\lambda\mu}\Gamma^\rho_{\sigma\nu}+\Gamma^\sigma_{\lambda\nu}\Gamma^\rho_{\sigma\mu}
Rλμνρ=−Γλμ,νρ+Γλν,μρ−ΓλμσΓσνρ+ΓλνσΓσμρ
但这里的
Γ
λ
μ
ρ
\Gamma^\rho_{\lambda\mu}
Γλμρ是Christoffel联络,并具有对称性
Γ
λ
μ
ρ
=
Γ
μ
λ
ρ
\Gamma^\rho_{\lambda\mu}=\Gamma^{\rho}_{\mu\lambda}
Γλμρ=Γμλρ,而非仿射联络
R λ μ ν ρ R^\rho_{\lambda\mu\nu} Rλμνρ是唯一能从度规张量及其一阶和二阶导数构造出来,且对二阶导数是线性关系的张量
曲率张量的性质
黎曼空间中的曲率张量,具有原有的对称性:
R
λ
μ
ν
ρ
=
−
R
λ
ν
μ
ρ
R^\rho_{\lambda \mu\nu}=-R^\rho_{\lambda\nu\mu}
Rλμνρ=−Rλνμρ
以及新的对称性:
R
λ
μ
ν
ρ
+
R
μ
ν
λ
ρ
+
R
ν
λ
μ
ρ
=
0
(1)
R^\rho_{\lambda\mu\nu}+R^\rho_{\mu\nu\lambda}+R^\rho_{\nu\lambda\mu}=0\tag{1}
Rλμνρ+Rμνλρ+Rνλμρ=0(1)
定义
(
0
,
4
)
(0,4)
(0,4)阶曲率张量:
R
ρ
λ
μ
ν
≡
g
ρ
σ
R
λ
μ
ν
σ
R_{\rho\lambda\mu\nu}\equiv g_{\rho\sigma}R^\sigma_{\lambda\mu\nu}
Rρλμν≡gρσRλμνσ,其性质为:
(1) μ , ν \mu,\nu μ,ν反对称: R ρ λ μ ν = − R ρ λ ν μ R_{\rho\lambda\mu\nu}=-R_{\rho\lambda\nu\mu} Rρλμν=−Rρλνμ
(2) ρ , λ \rho,\lambda ρ,λ反对称: R ρ λ μ ν = − R λ ρ μ ν R_{\rho\lambda\mu\nu}=-R_{\lambda\rho\mu\nu} Rρλμν=−Rλρμν
(3) ρ λ \rho\lambda ρλ与 μ ν \mu\nu μν对称: R ρ λ μ ν = R μ ν ρ λ R_{\rho\lambda\mu\nu}=R_{\mu\nu\rho\lambda} Rρλμν=Rμνρλ
(4) λ μ ν \lambda\mu\nu λμν反对称:由关系(1)可以得到: R ρ λ μ ν + R ρ μ ν λ + R ρ ν λ μ = 0 R_{\rho\lambda\mu\nu}+R_{\rho\mu\nu\lambda}+R_{\rho\nu\lambda\mu}=0 Rρλμν+Rρμνλ+Rρνλμ=0
证明:(2)(3)
考虑任一点
P
P
P,取一个特殊坐标系,使得
(
Γ
α
β
μ
)
P
=
0
(\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta})_P=0
(Γαβμ)P=0,所以:
R
ρ
σ
μ
ν
=
g
ρ
λ
[
Γ
ν
σ
,
μ
λ
−
Γ
μ
σ
,
ν
λ
]
=
1
2
g
ρ
λ
g
λ
τ
[
g
σ
τ
,
μ
,
ν
+
g
τ
ν
,
μ
,
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−
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−
g
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,
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−
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+
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σ
,
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]
=
1
2
δ
ρ
τ
[
g
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,
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,
ν
+
g
τ
ν
,
μ
,
σ
−
g
ν
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,
μ
,
τ
−
g
σ
τ
,
ν
,
μ
−
g
τ
μ
,
ν
,
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+
g
μ
σ
,
ν
,
τ
]
=
1
2
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+
g
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]
\begin{aligned} R_{\rho\sigma\mu\nu}&=g_{\rho\lambda}[\Gamma^\lambda_{\nu\sigma,\mu}-\Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\sigma,\nu}]\\ &=\frac{1}{2}g_{\rho\lambda}g^{\lambda\tau}[g_{\sigma\tau,\mu,\nu}+g_{\tau\nu,\mu,\sigma}-g_{\nu\sigma,\mu,\tau}-g_{\sigma\tau,\nu,\mu}-g_{\tau\mu,\nu,\sigma}+g_{\mu\sigma,\nu,\tau}]\\ &=\frac{1}{2}\delta^\tau_\rho[g_{\sigma\tau,\mu,\nu}+g_{\tau\nu,\mu,\sigma}-g_{\nu\sigma,\mu,\tau}-g_{\sigma\tau,\nu,\mu}-g_{\tau\mu,\nu,\sigma}+g_{\mu\sigma,\nu,\tau}]\\ &=\frac{1}{2}[g_{\sigma\rho,\mu,\nu}+g_{\rho\nu,\mu,\sigma}-g_{\nu\sigma,\mu,\rho}-g_{\sigma\rho,\nu,\mu}-g_{\rho\mu,\nu,\sigma}+g_{\mu\sigma,\nu,\rho}] \end{aligned}
Rρσμν=gρλ[Γνσ,μλ−Γμσ,νλ]=21gρλgλτ[gστ,μ,ν+gτν,μ,σ−gνσ,μ,τ−gστ,ν,μ−gτμ,ν,σ+gμσ,ν,τ]=21δρτ[gστ,μ,ν+gτν,μ,σ−gνσ,μ,τ−gστ,ν,μ−gτμ,ν,σ+gμσ,ν,τ]=21[gσρ,μ,ν+gρν,μ,σ−gνσ,μ,ρ−gσρ,ν,μ−gρμ,ν,σ+gμσ,ν,ρ]
第一项和第四项相消:
R
ρ
σ
μ
ν
=
1
2
[
g
ρ
ν
,
μ
,
σ
−
g
ν
σ
,
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,
ρ
−
g
ρ
μ
,
ν
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+
g
μ
σ
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ν
,
ρ
]
=
1
2
[
(
1
)
−
(
2
)
−
(
3
)
+
(
4
)
]
\begin{aligned} R_{\rho\sigma\mu\nu}&=\frac{1}{2}[g_{\rho\nu,\mu,\sigma}-g_{\nu\sigma,\mu,\rho}-g_{\rho\mu,\nu,\sigma}+g_{\mu\sigma,\nu,\rho}]\\ &=\frac{1}{2}[(1)-(2)-(3)+(4)] \end{aligned}
Rρσμν=21[gρν,μ,σ−gνσ,μ,ρ−gρμ,ν,σ+gμσ,ν,ρ]=21[(1)−(2)−(3)+(4)]
则有:
R
σ
ρ
μ
ν
=
1
2
[
(
2
)
−
(
1
)
−
(
4
)
+
(
3
)
]
R_{\sigma\rho\mu\nu}=\frac{1}{2}[(2)-(1)-(4)+(3)]
Rσρμν=21[(2)−(1)−(4)+(3)]
反对称性得证
R
μ
ν
ρ
σ
=
1
2
[
(
4
)
−
(
2
)
−
(
3
)
+
(
1
)
]
R_{\mu\nu\rho\sigma}=\frac{1}{2}[(4)-(2)-(3)+(1)]
Rμνρσ=21[(4)−(2)−(3)+(1)]
对称性得证
QED.
该关系式(4)的等价表述为 R ρ [ λ μ ν ] = 0 R_{\rho[\lambda\mu\nu]}=0 Rρ[λμν]=0或 R [ ρ λ μ ν ] = 0 R_{[\rho\lambda\mu\nu]}=0 R[ρλμν]=0
上述各式构成了黎曼张量的全部对称性,而上式
R
[
ρ
λ
μ
ν
]
R_{[\rho\lambda\mu\nu]}
R[ρλμν]对应的方程个数为:
C
n
4
=
n
(
n
−
1
)
(
n
−
2
)
(
n
−
3
)
4
!
C^4_n=\frac{n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3)}{4!}
Cn4=4!n(n−1)(n−2)(n−3)
即有
C
n
4
C^4_n
Cn4个约束条件
曲率张量的独立分量个数
对于 n n n维的黎曼空间,曲率张量 R ρ λ μ ν R_{\rho\lambda\mu\nu} Rρλμν的独立分量个数:
(1) μ , ν \mu,\nu μ,ν反对称 → \rightarrow → μ ν \mu\nu μν共有 1 2 n ( n − 1 ) = C n 2 \frac{1}{2}n(n-1)=C^2_n 21n(n−1)=Cn2种取法
(2) ρ , λ \rho,\lambda ρ,λ反对称 → \rightarrow → ρ λ \rho\lambda ρλ共有 1 2 n ( n − 1 ) = C n 2 \frac{1}{2}n(n-1)=C^2_n 21n(n−1)=Cn2种取法
(3) ρ λ \rho\lambda ρλ与 μ ν \mu\nu μν对称 → \rightarrow → ρ λ \rho\lambda ρλ与 μ ν \mu\nu μν共有 1 2 C n 2 ( C n 2 + 1 ) \frac{1}{2}C^2_n(C^2_n+1) 21Cn2(Cn2+1)种取法
(4)前面提到的那个条件 R [ ρ λ μ ν ] R_{[\rho\lambda\mu\nu]} R[ρλμν] → \rightarrow → C n 4 C^4_n Cn4个约束条件
由此得到独立分量的个数:
N
=
1
2
(
C
n
2
+
1
)
C
n
2
−
C
n
4
=
1
12
n
2
(
n
2
−
1
)
N=\frac{1}{2}(C^2_n+1)C^2_n-C^4_n=\frac{1}{12}n^2(n^2-1)
N=21(Cn2+1)Cn2−Cn4=121n2(n2−1)
当
n
=
1
n=1
n=1时,
N
=
0
N=0
N=0
当 n = 2 n=2 n=2时, N = 1 N=1 N=1
当 n = 3 n=3 n=3时, N = 6 N=6 N=6
当 n = 4 n=4 n=4时, N = 20 N=20 N=20
Ricci张量
R μ ν ≡ R μ ν λ λ R_{\mu\nu}\equiv R^\lambda_{\mu\nu\lambda} Rμν≡Rμνλλ
Ricci张量是对称张量,即 R μ ν = R ν μ R_{\mu\nu}=R_{\nu\mu} Rμν=Rνμ
Ricci标量(标量曲率)
R ≡ g μ ν R μ ν = R μ μ R\equiv g^{\mu\nu}R_{\mu\nu}=R^\mu_\mu R≡gμνRμν=Rμμ
Einstein张量
G μ ν ≡ R μ ν − 1 2 g μ ν R G_{\mu\nu}\equiv R_{\mu\nu}-\frac{1}{2}g_{\mu\nu}R Gμν≡Rμν−21gμνR
易证: G μ ν = G ν μ G_{\mu\nu}=G_{\nu\mu} Gμν=Gνμ
平坦的黎曼空间
在黎曼空间中,若曲率张量为零,则黎曼空间是平坦的。若黎曼空间是弯曲的,则必有 R λ μ ν ρ ≠ 0 R^\rho_{\lambda\mu\nu}\neq 0 Rλμνρ=0
Weyl张量
Weyl张量是黎曼张量减掉其所有的缩并部分的张量,在
n
n
n维空间中,Wely张量定义为:
C
ρ
σ
μ
ν
≡
R
ρ
σ
μ
ν
−
2
n
−
2
(
g
ρ
[
μ
R
ν
]
σ
−
g
σ
[
μ
R
ν
]
ρ
)
+
2
(
n
−
1
)
(
n
−
2
)
R
g
ρ
[
μ
g
ν
]
σ
C_{\rho\sigma\mu\nu}\equiv R_{\rho\sigma\mu\nu}-\frac{2}{n-2}(g_{\rho[\mu} R_{\nu]\sigma}-g_{\sigma[\mu}R_{\nu]\rho})+\frac{2}{(n-1)(n-2)}Rg_{\rho[\mu}g_{\nu]\sigma}
Cρσμν≡Rρσμν−n−22(gρ[μRν]σ−gσ[μRν]ρ)+(n−1)(n−2)2Rgρ[μgν]σ
此式保证了
C
ρ
σ
μ
ν
C_{\rho\sigma\mu\nu}
Cρσμν的任何缩并都为零
Weyl张量的性质
(1)对称性
C
ρ
σ
μ
ν
=
C
[
ρ
σ
]
[
μ
ν
]
,
C
ρ
σ
μ
ν
=
C
μ
ν
ρ
σ
,
C
ρ
[
σ
μ
ν
]
=
0
C_{\rho\sigma\mu\nu}=C_{[\rho\sigma][\mu\nu]},\ C_{\rho\sigma\mu\nu}=C_{\mu\nu\rho\sigma},\ C_{\rho[\sigma\mu\nu]}=0
Cρσμν=C[ρσ][μν], Cρσμν=Cμνρσ, Cρ[σμν]=0
与黎曼张量一致
(2)Weyl张量仅在
n
≥
3
n\ge 3
n≥3维的空间中才有定义,且当
n
=
3
n=3
n=3时,
C
ρ
σ
μ
ν
=
0
C_{\rho\sigma\mu\nu}=0
Cρσμν=0,当
n
≥
4
n\ge 4
n≥4时,满足Bianchi恒等式:
∇
ρ
C
ρ
σ
μ
ν
=
−
2
(
n
−
3
)
n
−
2
(
∇
[
μ
R
ν
]
σ
+
1
2
(
n
−
1
)
g
σ
[
ν
∇
μ
]
R
)
\nabla^\rho C_{\rho\sigma\mu\nu}=\frac{-2(n-3)}{n-2}\left(\nabla_{[\mu}R_{\nu]\sigma}+\frac{1}{2(n-1)}g_{\sigma[\nu}\nabla_{\mu]}R \right)
∇ρCρσμν=n−2−2(n−3)(∇[μRν]σ+2(n−1)1gσ[ν∇μ]R)
(3)Weyl张量共形不变:若对一个度规
g
μ
ν
g_{\mu\nu}
gμν,计算得到一个
C
ρ
σ
μ
ν
C_{\rho\sigma\mu\nu}
Cρσμν,则对另一任意度规
Ω
2
(
x
)
g
μ
ν
\Omega^2(x)g_{\mu\nu}
Ω2(x)gμν,计算得到同样的
C
ρ
σ
μ
ν
C_{\rho\sigma\mu\nu}
Cρσμν,其中
Ω
(
x
)
\Omega(x)
Ω(x)是时空的任意函数。因此,Weyl也叫做共形张量
8、测地线偏离方程
一般的协变微分是针对任意的张量场的,但 P μ P_\mu Pμ只对粒子的运动轨迹有意义
沿着某条曲线的协变微分
研究:某张量
T
⋯
⋯
T^\cdots_\cdots
T⋯⋯沿曲线运动,即
x
μ
=
x
μ
(
τ
)
x^\mu=x^\mu(\tau)
xμ=xμ(τ),可以定义沿曲线的协变微分:
D
T
⋯
⋯
D
τ
≡
d
x
μ
d
τ
T
⋯
;
μ
⋯
\frac{DT^\cdots_\cdots}{D\tau}\equiv\frac{dx^\mu}{d\tau}T^\cdots_{\cdots ;\mu}
DτDT⋯⋯≡dτdxμT⋯;μ⋯
因为
d
x
μ
dx^\mu
dxμ,
d
τ
d\tau
dτ,
T
⋯
;
μ
⋯
T^\cdots_{\cdots ;\mu}
T⋯;μ⋯都是张量,所以可以证明这是一个张量:
D
A
μ
D
τ
=
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x
α
d
τ
A
;
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μ
=
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α
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τ
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\begin{aligned} \frac{DA^\mu}{D\tau}&=\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}A^\mu_{;\alpha}=\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}(A^\mu_{,\alpha}+\Gamma^\mu_{\lambda\alpha}A^\lambda)=\frac{dA^\mu}{d\tau}+\Gamma^\mu_{\lambda\alpha}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}A^\lambda\\ \frac{DA_\mu}{D\tau} &= \frac{dA_\mu}{d\tau}-\Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\nu}\frac{dx^\nu}{d\tau}A_\lambda \end{aligned}
DτDAμDτDAμ=dτdxαA;αμ=dτdxα(A,αμ+ΓλαμAλ)=dτdAμ+ΓλαμdτdxαAλ=dτdAμ−ΓμνλdτdxνAλ
令
U
μ
≡
d
x
μ
d
τ
U^\mu\equiv \dfrac{dx^\mu}{d\tau}
Uμ≡dτdxμ,改写测地线方程:
→
d
U
μ
d
τ
+
Γ
ν
ρ
μ
U
ν
U
ρ
=
0
→
D
U
μ
D
τ
=
0
d
x
ν
d
τ
U
;
ν
μ
=
0
o
r
U
ν
U
;
ν
μ
=
0
\rightarrow\ \frac{dU^\mu}{d\tau}+\Gamma^\mu_{\nu\rho}U^\nu U^\rho =0\rightarrow \ \frac{DU^\mu}{D\tau}=0\\ \frac{dx^\nu}{d\tau}U^\mu_{;\nu}=0\ or\ U^\nu U^\mu_{;\nu}=0
→ dτdUμ+ΓνρμUνUρ=0→ DτDUμ=0dτdxνU;νμ=0 or UνU;νμ=0
测地线偏离方程
考虑一对相邻的自由粒子,沿轨道
x
μ
(
τ
)
x^\mu(\tau)
xμ(τ)和
x
μ
(
τ
)
+
δ
x
μ
(
τ
)
x^\mu(\tau)+\delta x^\mu(\tau)
xμ(τ)+δxμ(τ)运动,均满足运动方程:
d
2
x
d
τ
2
+
Γ
α
β
μ
(
x
)
d
x
α
d
τ
d
x
β
d
τ
=
0
d
2
(
x
μ
+
δ
x
μ
)
d
τ
2
+
Γ
α
β
μ
(
x
+
δ
x
)
d
(
x
α
+
δ
x
α
)
d
τ
d
(
x
β
+
δ
x
β
)
d
τ
=
0
\begin{aligned} &\frac{d^2x}{d\tau^2}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}(x)\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\beta}{d\tau}=0\\ &\frac{d^2(x^\mu+\delta x^\mu)}{d\tau^2}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}(x+\delta x)\frac{d(x^\alpha+\delta x^\alpha)}{d\tau}\frac{d(x^\beta+\delta x^\beta)}{d\tau}=0 \end{aligned}
dτ2d2x+Γαβμ(x)dτdxαdτdxβ=0dτ2d2(xμ+δxμ)+Γαβμ(x+δx)dτd(xα+δxα)dτd(xβ+δxβ)=0
其中:
Γ
α
β
μ
(
x
+
δ
x
)
=
Γ
α
β
μ
(
x
)
+
Γ
α
β
,
λ
μ
(
x
)
δ
x
λ
\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}(x+\delta x)=\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}(x)+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta,\lambda}(x)\delta x^\lambda
Γαβμ(x+δx)=Γαβμ(x)+Γαβ,λμ(x)δxλ
上面两个运动方程相减,保留到
δ
x
μ
\delta x^\mu
δxμ的一阶小量:
d
2
δ
x
μ
d
τ
2
+
2
Γ
α
β
μ
d
x
α
d
τ
d
δ
x
β
d
τ
+
Γ
α
β
,
λ
μ
d
x
α
d
τ
d
x
β
d
τ
δ
x
λ
=
0
\frac{d^2\delta x^\mu}{d\tau^2}+2\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}\frac{d\delta x^\beta}{d\tau}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta,\lambda}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\beta}{d\tau}\delta x^\lambda=0
dτ2d2δxμ+2Γαβμdτdxαdτdδxβ+Γαβ,λμdτdxαdτdxβδxλ=0
由此可以得到测地线偏离方程:
D
2
δ
x
μ
D
τ
2
=
R
μ
α
β
λ
d
x
α
d
τ
d
x
β
d
τ
δ
x
λ
\frac{D^2\delta x^\mu}{D\tau^2}={R^\mu}_{\alpha\beta\lambda}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\beta}{d\tau}\delta x^\lambda
Dτ2D2δxμ=Rμαβλdτdxαdτdxβδxλ
得到测地线偏离方程的过程:
令
z
μ
=
δ
x
μ
z^\mu=\delta x^\mu
zμ=δxμ,则有:
D
2
z
μ
D
τ
2
=
D
D
τ
(
D
z
μ
D
τ
)
=
d
d
τ
(
D
z
μ
D
τ
)
+
Γ
α
β
μ
d
x
α
d
τ
D
z
μ
D
τ
=
d
2
z
μ
d
τ
2
+
Γ
α
β
,
λ
μ
d
x
λ
d
τ
d
x
α
d
τ
z
β
+
Γ
α
β
μ
d
2
x
α
d
τ
2
z
β
+
Γ
α
β
μ
d
x
α
d
τ
d
z
β
d
τ
+
Γ
α
β
μ
d
x
α
d
τ
d
z
β
d
τ
+
Γ
α
β
μ
Γ
σ
λ
β
d
x
α
d
τ
d
x
σ
d
τ
z
γ
=
d
2
z
μ
d
τ
2
+
2
Γ
α
β
μ
d
x
α
d
τ
d
x
β
d
τ
+
Γ
α
β
,
λ
μ
d
x
λ
d
τ
d
x
α
d
τ
z
β
+
Γ
α
β
μ
Γ
σ
λ
β
d
x
α
d
τ
d
x
σ
d
τ
z
γ
−
Γ
α
β
μ
(
−
Γ
θ
δ
α
d
x
θ
d
τ
d
x
δ
d
τ
)
z
β
\begin{aligned} \frac{D^2 z^\mu}{D\tau^2}&=\frac{D}{D\tau}\left(\frac{Dz^\mu}{D\tau}\right)\\ &=\frac{d}{d\tau}\left(\frac{Dz^\mu}{D\tau}\right)+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}\frac{Dz^\mu}{D\tau}\\ &=\frac{d^2 z^\mu}{d\tau^2}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta,\lambda}\frac{dx^\lambda}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}z^\beta+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\frac{d^2 x^\alpha}{d\tau^2}z^\beta\\ &+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}\frac{dz^\beta}{d\tau}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}\frac{dz^\beta}{d\tau}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\Gamma^\beta_{\sigma\lambda}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\sigma}{d\tau}z^\gamma\\ &=\frac{d^2z^\mu}{d\tau^2}+2\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\beta}{d\tau}+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta,\lambda}\frac{dx^\lambda}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}z^\beta\\ &+\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\Gamma^\beta_{\sigma\lambda}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\sigma}{d\tau}z^\gamma-\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta}\left(-\Gamma^\alpha_{\theta\delta}\frac{dx^\theta}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\delta}{d\tau} \right)z^\beta \end{aligned}
Dτ2D2zμ=DτD(DτDzμ)=dτd(DτDzμ)+ΓαβμdτdxαDτDzμ=dτ2d2zμ+Γαβ,λμdτdxλdτdxαzβ+Γαβμdτ2d2xαzβ+Γαβμdτdxαdτdzβ+Γαβμdτdxαdτdzβ+ΓαβμΓσλβdτdxαdτdxσzγ=dτ2d2zμ+2Γαβμdτdxαdτdxβ+Γαβ,λμdτdxλdτdxαzβ+ΓαβμΓσλβdτdxαdτdxσzγ−Γαβμ(−Γθδαdτdxθdτdxδ)zβ
前两项变为:
−
Γ
α
β
,
λ
μ
d
x
α
d
τ
d
x
β
d
τ
z
λ
-\Gamma^\mu_{\alpha\beta,\lambda}\frac{dx^\alpha}{d\tau}\frac{dx^\beta}{d\tau}z^\lambda
−Γαβ,λμdτdxαdτdxβzλ
后三项作指标代换,即可完成推导
QED.
与潮汐力的类比
δ x μ \delta x^\mu δxμ:两条测地线之间的差别
D δ x D τ \dfrac{D\delta x}{D\tau} DτDδx:差别的变化速度
D 2 x μ D τ 2 \dfrac{D^2 x^\mu}{D\tau^2} Dτ2D2xμ:差别变化的加速度 → \rightarrow →物理上的潮汐力
牛顿力学中,两相邻粒子相距为
ξ
⃗
\vec \xi
ξ,它们在引力场中自由运动,加速度
a
⃗
(
x
⃗
)
\vec a(\vec x)
a(x)和
a
⃗
(
x
⃗
+
ξ
⃗
)
\vec a(\vec x+\vec \xi)
a(x+ξ)
a
⃗
(
x
⃗
+
ξ
⃗
)
=
a
⃗
(
x
⃗
)
+
(
ξ
⃗
⋅
∇
)
a
⃗
(
x
⃗
)
+
O
(
ξ
⃗
2
)
\vec a(\vec x+\vec \xi)=\vec a(\vec x)+(\vec \xi\cdot\nabla)\vec a(\vec x)+O(\vec \xi^2)
a(x+ξ)=a(x)+(ξ⋅∇)a(x)+O(ξ2)
相对加速度(潮汐加速度)为:
Δ
a
⃗
≡
(
ξ
⃗
⋅
∇
)
a
⃗
→
∇
a
i
=
−
ξ
i
∂
2
Φ
∂
x
i
∂
x
j
≡
−
ϵ
i
j
ξ
j
\Delta\vec a\equiv (\vec\xi\cdot\nabla)\vec a\rightarrow \nabla a_i=-\xi^i\frac{\partial^2\Phi}{\partial x^i \partial x^j}\equiv -\epsilon_{ij}\xi^j
Δa≡(ξ⋅∇)a→∇ai=−ξi∂xi∂xj∂2Φ≡−ϵijξj
其中,
ϵ
i
j
\epsilon_{ij}
ϵij为潮汐张量
对上式考虑坐标系
U
α
=
(
1
,
0
,
0
,
0
)
U^\alpha=(1,0,0,0)
Uα=(1,0,0,0)
D
2
δ
x
μ
D
τ
2
=
R
μ
00
λ
δ
x
λ
\frac{D^2 \delta x^\mu}{D\tau^2}={R^\mu}_{00\lambda}\delta x^\lambda
Dτ2D2δxμ=Rμ00λδxλ
R
R
R称为潮汐分量,对应的物理量即为潮汐加速度
9、张量密度
定义
经过坐标变换时,会多出几个Jacobi因子,这个因子称为“张量密度”。其中,行列式 ∣ ∂ x ~ ∂ x ∣ \left|\frac{\partial\tilde x}{\partial x}\right| ∣∣∂x∂x~∣∣因子的数目称为该密度的“权”
例如,度规的行列式
g
≡
det
∣
g
μ
ν
∣
g\equiv \det|g_{\mu\nu}|
g≡det∣gμν∣,已知:
g
~
μ
ν
=
∂
x
ρ
∂
x
~
μ
∂
x
σ
∂
x
~
ν
g
ρ
σ
=
∂
x
ρ
∂
x
~
μ
g
ρ
σ
∂
x
σ
∂
x
~
ν
\tilde g_{\mu\nu}=\frac{\partial x^\rho}{\partial \tilde x^\mu}\frac{\partial x^\sigma}{\partial \tilde x^\nu}g_{\rho\sigma}=\frac{\partial x^\rho}{\partial \tilde x^\mu}g_{\rho\sigma}\frac{\partial x^\sigma}{\partial\tilde x^\nu}
g~μν=∂x~μ∂xρ∂x~ν∂xσgρσ=∂x~μ∂xρgρσ∂x~ν∂xσ
现在最右边的运算和矩阵相乘一致了,因此可以左右两边都取行列式:
g
~
=
∣
∂
x
∂
x
~
∣
2
g
\tilde g=\left|\frac{\partial x}{\partial \tilde x}\right|^2 g
g~=∣∣∣∣∂x~∂x∣∣∣∣2g
得到
g
g
g的权为-2
对于任一权为 w w w的张量密度,将其乘以 ( − g ) w / 2 (-g)^{w/2} (−g)w/2,即可构成一个张量。张量是权为零的张量密度
举例
(1)体积元
d
4
x
d^4 x
d4x。在坐标变换
x
→
x
~
x\rightarrow \tilde x
x→x~时:
d
4
x
=
∣
∂
x
~
∂
x
∣
d
4
x
d^4 x=\left|\frac{\partial \tilde x}{\partial x}\right|d^4 x
d4x=∣∣∣∣∂x∂x~∣∣∣∣d4x
权为+1,因此
−
g
d
4
x
\sqrt{-g}d^4x
−gd4x构成一个不变的体积元。
−
g
d
4
x
\sqrt{-g}d^4 x
−gd4x是张量
(2)Levi-Civita符号:
N
×
N
N\times N
N×N矩阵
M
μ
μ
′
{M_\mu}^\mu{}'
Mμμ′的行列式:
ϵ
μ
1
′
μ
2
′
⋯
μ
N
′
∣
M
∣
=
ϵ
μ
1
⋯
μ
N
M
μ
1
μ
1
′
M
μ
2
μ
2
′
⋯
M
μ
N
μ
N
′
\epsilon^{\mu_1'\mu_2'\cdots\mu_N'}|M|=\epsilon^{\mu_1\cdots\mu_N}M_{\mu_1}^{\mu_1'}M_{\mu_2}^{\mu_2'}\cdots M_{\mu_N}^{\mu_N'}
ϵμ1′μ2′⋯μN′∣M∣=ϵμ1⋯μNMμ1μ1′Mμ2μ2′⋯MμNμN′
取
M
μ
μ
′
≡
∂
x
~
μ
′
∂
x
μ
{M_\mu}^\mu{}'\equiv\dfrac{\partial \tilde x^\mu{}'}{\partial x^\mu}
Mμμ′≡∂xμ∂x~μ′:
ϵ
μ
1
′
μ
2
′
⋯
μ
N
′
∣
∂
x
~
μ
′
∂
x
μ
∣
=
ϵ
μ
1
μ
2
⋯
μ
N
∂
x
~
μ
1
′
∂
x
μ
1
⋯
∂
x
~
μ
N
′
∂
x
μ
N
\epsilon^{\mu_1'\mu_2'\cdots\mu_N'}\left|\frac{\partial\tilde x^\mu{}'}{\partial x^\mu}\right|=\epsilon^{\mu_1\mu_2\cdots\mu_N}\frac{\partial \tilde x^{\mu_1'}}{\partial x^{\mu_1}}\cdots \frac{\partial \tilde x^{\mu_N'}}{\partial x^{\mu_N}}
ϵμ1′μ2′⋯μN′∣∣∣∣∂xμ∂x~μ′∣∣∣∣=ϵμ1μ2⋯μN∂xμ1∂x~μ1′⋯∂xμN∂x~μN′
ϵ ~ μ 1 ′ μ 2 ′ ⋯ μ N ′ = ϵ μ 1 ′ μ 2 ′ ⋯ μ N ′ = ∣ ∂ x μ ∂ x ~ μ ′ ∣ ( ϵ μ 1 μ 2 ⋯ μ N ∂ x ~ μ 1 ′ ∂ x μ 1 ⋯ ∂ x ~ μ N ′ ∂ x μ N ) \tilde\epsilon^{\mu_1'\mu_2'\cdots\mu_N'}=\epsilon^{\mu_1'\mu_2'\cdots\mu_N'}=\left|\frac{\partial x^\mu}{\partial \tilde x^\mu{}'}\right|\left(\epsilon^{\mu_1\mu_2\cdots\mu_N}\frac{\partial \tilde x^{\mu_1'}}{\partial x^{\mu_1}}\cdots \frac{\partial \tilde x^{\mu_N'}}{\partial x^{\mu_N}}\right) ϵ~μ1′μ2′⋯μN′=ϵμ1′μ2′⋯μN′=∣∣∣∣∂x~μ′∂xμ∣∣∣∣(ϵμ1μ2⋯μN∂xμ1∂x~μ1′⋯∂xμN∂x~μN′)
所以 ϵ μ 1 ⋯ μ N \epsilon^{\mu_1\cdots\mu_N} ϵμ1⋯μN是权为-1的张量密度
( − g ) 1 2 ϵ μ 1 ⋯ μ N → (-g)^\frac{1}{2}\epsilon^{\mu_1\cdots\mu_N}\rightarrow (−g)21ϵμ1⋯μN→Levi-Civita张量
(3)定义: ϵ ρ σ η ξ ≡ g ρ μ g σ ν g η λ g ξ κ ϵ μ ν λ κ \epsilon_{\rho\sigma\eta\xi}\equiv g_{\rho\mu}g_{\sigma\nu}g_{\eta\lambda}g_{\xi\kappa}\epsilon^{\mu\nu\lambda\kappa} ϵρσηξ≡gρμgσνgηλgξκϵμνλκ,它是一个权为-1的协变张量密度
张量密度的运算规则
(1)权为 w w w的两个张量密度线性组合仍是一个权为 w w w的张量密度
(2)权为 w 1 w_1 w1和 w 2 w_2 w2的两个张量密度直积,得到一个权为 w 1 + w 2 w_1+w_2 w1+w2的张量密度
(3)缩并和指标升降不改变张量密度的权
10、一些常用的计算公式
梯度:标量的协变导数
S ; μ = ∂ S ∂ x μ = S , μ S_{;\mu}=\frac{\partial S}{\partial x^\mu}=S_{,\mu} S;μ=∂xμ∂S=S,μ
协变矢量的旋度
黎曼空间中的旋度运算定义为:
c
u
r
l
μ
ν
(
V
μ
)
≡
V
ν
;
μ
−
V
μ
;
ν
curl_{\mu\nu}(V_\mu)\equiv V_{\nu;\mu}-V_{\mu;\nu}
curlμν(Vμ)≡Vν;μ−Vμ;ν
已知
V
μ
;
ν
=
V
μ
,
ν
−
Γ
μ
ν
λ
V
λ
V_{\mu;\nu}=V_{\mu,\nu}-\Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\nu}V_\lambda
Vμ;ν=Vμ,ν−ΓμνλVλ,所以协变旋度就等于通常的旋度,即:
V
μ
;
ν
−
V
ν
;
μ
=
(
V
μ
,
ν
−
Γ
μ
ν
λ
V
λ
)
−
(
V
ν
,
μ
−
Γ
ν
μ
λ
V
λ
)
=
V
μ
,
ν
−
V
ν
,
μ
V_{\mu;\nu}-V_{\nu;\mu}=(V_{\mu,\nu}-\Gamma^\lambda_{\mu\nu}V_\lambda)-(V_{\nu,\mu}-\Gamma^\lambda_{\nu\mu}V_\lambda)=V_{\mu,\nu}-V_{\nu,\mu}
Vμ;ν−Vν;μ=(Vμ,ν−ΓμνλVλ)−(Vν,μ−ΓνμλVλ)=Vμ,ν−Vν,μ
因此,可以通过旋度运算,由一个矢量场得到一个二阶反对称张量场
逆变矢量的协变散度
V ; μ μ = V , μ μ + Γ μ λ μ V λ = 1 − g ( − g V μ ) , μ V^\mu_{;\mu}=V^\mu_{,\mu}+\Gamma^\mu_{\mu\lambda}V^\lambda=\frac{1}{\sqrt{-g}}(\sqrt{-g}V^\mu)_{,\mu} V;μμ=V,μμ+ΓμλμVλ=−g1(−gVμ),μ
例如标量场梯度的散度为:
□
φ
≡
(
g
μ
ν
φ
;
ν
)
;
μ
=
1
−
g
∂
∂
x
μ
(
−
g
g
μ
ν
∂
φ
∂
x
ν
)
\square \varphi \equiv (g^{\mu\nu}\varphi_{;\nu})_{;\mu}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{-g}}\frac{\partial}{\partial x^\mu}\left(\sqrt{-g}g^{\mu\nu}\frac{\partial \varphi}{\partial x^\nu} \right)
□φ≡(gμνφ;ν);μ=−g1∂xμ∂(−ggμν∂xν∂φ)
证明:
数学恒等式:
T
r
{
M
−
1
(
x
)
M
,
λ
}
=
(
ln
∣
det
M
(
x
)
∣
)
,
λ
Tr\left\{M^{-1}(x)M_{,\lambda} \right\}=\left(\ln|\det M(x)|\right)_{,\lambda}
Tr{M−1(x)M,λ}=(ln∣detM(x)∣),λ
其中,
M
≡
g
ρ
μ
M\equiv g_{\rho\mu}
M≡gρμ
T
r
{
M
−
1
M
,
λ
}
=
g
ρ
μ
g
ρ
μ
,
λ
=
(
ln
∣
det
g
ρ
μ
∣
)
,
λ
=
(
ln
(
−
g
)
)
,
λ
Tr\left\{M^{-1}M_{,\lambda} \right\}=g^{\rho\mu}g_{\rho\mu,\lambda}=(\ln|\det g_{\rho\mu}|)_{,\lambda}=(\ln(-g))_{,\lambda}
Tr{M−1M,λ}=gρμgρμ,λ=(ln∣detgρμ∣),λ=(ln(−g)),λ
V ; μ μ = V , μ μ + Γ μ λ μ V λ = V , μ μ + 1 2 g μ ρ ( g ρ μ , λ + g ρ λ , μ − g μ λ , ρ ) V λ V^\mu_{;\mu}=V^\mu_{,\mu}+\Gamma^\mu_{\mu\lambda}V^\lambda=V^\mu_{,\mu}+\frac{1}{2}g^{\mu\rho}(g_{\rho\mu,\lambda}+g_{\rho\lambda,\mu}-g_{\mu\lambda,\rho})V^\lambda V;μμ=V,μμ+ΓμλμVλ=V,μμ+21gμρ(gρμ,λ+gρλ,μ−gμλ,ρ)Vλ
其中,
g
μ
ρ
(
g
ρ
λ
,
μ
−
g
μ
λ
,
ρ
)
=
0
g^{\mu\rho}(g_{\rho\lambda,\mu}-g_{\mu\lambda,\rho})=0
gμρ(gρλ,μ−gμλ,ρ)=0,由此:
V
;
μ
μ
=
V
,
μ
μ
+
1
2
g
μ
ρ
g
ρ
μ
,
λ
V
λ
=
V
,
μ
μ
+
(
1
2
ln
(
−
g
)
)
,
λ
V
λ
=
V
,
μ
μ
+
(
ln
−
g
)
,
λ
V
λ
=
V
,
μ
μ
+
1
−
g
(
−
g
)
,
λ
V
λ
=
1
−
g
(
−
g
V
μ
)
,
μ
\begin{aligned} V^\mu_{;\mu}&=V^\mu_{,\mu}+\frac{1}{2}g^{\mu\rho}g_{\rho\mu,\lambda}V^\lambda\\ &=V^\mu_{,\mu}+\left(\frac{1}{2}\ln(-g)\right)_{,\lambda}V^\lambda\\ &=V^\mu_{,\mu}+\left(\ln\sqrt{-g}\right)_{,\lambda}V^\lambda\\ &=V^\mu_{,\mu}+\frac{1}{\sqrt{-g}}\left(\sqrt{-g}\right)_{,\lambda}V^\lambda\\ &=\frac{1}{\sqrt{-g}}\left(\sqrt{-g}V^\mu\right)_{,\mu} \end{aligned}
V;μμ=V,μμ+21gμρgρμ,λVλ=V,μμ+(21ln(−g)),λVλ=V,μμ+(ln−g),λVλ=V,μμ+−g1(−g),λVλ=−g1(−gVμ),μ
QED.
张量的协变散度
T ; μ μ ν = 1 − g ( − g T μ ν ) , μ + Γ μ λ ν T μ λ T^{\mu\nu}_{;\mu}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{-g}}(\sqrt{-g}T^{\mu\nu})_{,\mu}+\Gamma^\nu_{\mu\lambda}T^{\mu\lambda} T;μμν=−g1(−gTμν),μ+ΓμλνTμλ
当
μ
ν
\mu\nu
μν反对称时,第二项为零。例如,对于电磁场
F
μ
ν
F^{\mu\nu}
Fμν,有:
F
;
μ
μ
ν
=
1
−
g
(
−
g
F
μ
ν
)
,
μ
F^{\mu\nu}_{;\mu}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{-g}}(\sqrt{-g}F^{\mu\nu})_{,\mu}
F;μμν=−g1(−gFμν),μ
反对称张量的旋度
反对称张量场的旋度运算与普通旋度运算相同,通过旋度运算可以得到一个高一阶的反对称张量场,例如:
c
u
r
l
μ
ν
λ
(
A
μ
ν
)
≡
A
μ
ν
;
λ
+
A
λ
μ
,
ν
+
A
ν
λ
;
μ
curl_{\mu\nu\lambda}(A_{\mu\nu})\equiv A_{\mu\nu;\lambda}+A_{\lambda\mu,\nu}+A_{\nu\lambda;\mu}
curlμνλ(Aμν)≡Aμν;λ+Aλμ,ν+Aνλ;μ
利用关系式:
A
μ
ν
,
λ
=
A
μ
ν
,
λ
−
Γ
μ
λ
ρ
A
ρ
ν
−
Γ
ν
λ
ρ
A
μ
ρ
A_{\mu\nu,\lambda}=A_{\mu\nu,\lambda}-\Gamma^\rho_{\mu\lambda}A_{\rho\nu}-\Gamma^\rho_{\nu\lambda}A_{\mu\rho}
Aμν,λ=Aμν,λ−ΓμλρAρν−ΓνλρAμρ
若
A
μ
ν
A_{\mu\nu}
Aμν反对称,则有:
c
u
r
l
μ
ν
λ
(
A
μ
ν
)
≡
A
μ
ν
;
λ
+
A
λ
μ
;
ν
+
A
ν
λ
;
μ
=
A
μ
ν
,
λ
+
A
λ
μ
,
ν
+
A
ν
λ
,
μ
curl_{\mu\nu\lambda}(A_{\mu\nu})\equiv A_{\mu\nu;\lambda}+A_{\lambda\mu;\nu}+A_{\nu\lambda;\mu}=A_{\mu\nu,\lambda}+A_{\lambda\mu,\nu}+A_{\nu\lambda,\mu}
curlμνλ(Aμν)≡Aμν;λ+Aλμ;ν+Aνλ;μ=Aμν,λ+Aλμ,ν+Aνλ,μ