1复数
为了引入四元数的概念和更好的理解四元数,首先回顾复数的相关概念。因为四元数的根源其实是复数。
虚数:
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i就是虚数,这是在逻辑上不存在的数。
复数:
复数由实部和虚部构成,表示形式为:
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z=a+bi~~a,b\in\mathbb{R},~~i^2=-1
z=a+bi a,b∈R, i2=−1
因此可以认为所有实数都是
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b=0的复数、所有虚数都是
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a=0的复数。
1.1 复数的运算
加法和减法
对应实部相加减,对应虚部相加减
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(a_{1} + b_{1}\mathbf i) + (a_{2} + b_{2}\mathbf i) = (a_{1} + a_{2}) + (b_{1} + b_{2})\mathbf i
(a1+b1i)+(a2+b2i)=(a1+a2)+(b1+b2)i
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(a_{1} + b_{1}\mathbf i) - (a_{2} + b_{2}\mathbf i) = (a_{1} - a_{2}) + (b_{1} - b_{2})\mathbf i
(a1+b1i)−(a2+b2i)=(a1−a2)+(b1−b2)i
与标量相乘
λ ( a 1 + b 1 i ) = λ a 1 + λ b 1 i \lambda (a_{1} + b_{1}\mathbf i) = \lambda a_{1} + \lambda b_{1}\mathbf i λ(a1+b1i)=λa1+λb1i
复数相乘
z 1 = ( a 1 + b 1 i ) z 2 = ( a 2 + b 2 i ) z 1 z 2 = ( a 1 + b 1 i ) ( a 2 + b 2 i ) = a 1 a 2 + a 1 b 2 i + b 1 a 2 i + b 1 b 2 i 2 z 1 z 2 = ( a 1 a 2 − b 1 b 2 ) + ( a 1 b 2 + b 1 a 2 ) i z_{1} = (a_{1} + b_{1}\mathbf i) \\ z_{2} = (a_{2} + b_{2}\mathbf i) \\z_{1}z_{2} = (a_{1} + b_{1}\mathbf i)(a_{2} + b_{2}\mathbf i) = a_{1}a_{2} + a_{1}b_{2}\mathbf i + b_{1}a_{2}\mathbf i + b_{1}b_{2}\mathbf i^{2}\\ z_{1}z_{2} = (a_{1}a_{2} - b_{1}b_{2}) + (a_{1}b_{2} + b_{1}a_{2})\mathbf i z1=(a1+b1i)z2=(a2+b2i)z1z2=(a1+b1i)(a2+b2i)=a1a2+a1b2i+b1a2i+b1b2i2z1z2=(a1a2−b1b2)+(a1b2+b1a2)i
复数相除
z 1 = ( a 1 + b 1 i ) z 2 = ( a 2 + b 2 i ) z 1 z 2 = a 1 + b 1 i a 2 + b 2 i = ( a 1 + b 1 i ) ( a 2 − b 2 i ) ( a 2 + b 2 i ) ( a 2 − b 2 i ) = a 1 a 2 − a 1 b 2 i + b 1 a 2 i − b 1 b 2 i 2 a 2 2 + b 2 2 z_{1} = (a_{1} + b_{1}\mathbf i)\\ z_{2} = (a_{2} + b_{2}\mathbf i)\\ \frac {z_{1}}{z_{2}} = \frac {a_{1} + b_{1}\mathbf i}{a_{2} + b_{2}\mathbf i} = \frac {(a_{1} + b_{1}\mathbf i)(a_{2} - b_{2}\mathbf i)}{(a_{2} + b_{2}\mathbf i)(a_{2} - b_{2}\mathbf i)}\\= \frac {a_{1}a_{2}-a_{1}b_{2}\mathbf i+b_{1}a_{2}\mathbf i-b_{1}b_{2}\mathbf i^{2} }{a_{2}^{2} + b_{2}^{2}} z1=(a1+b1i)z2=(a2+b2i)z2z1=a2+b2ia1+b1i=(a2+b2i)(a2−b2i)(a1+b1i)(a2−b2i)=a22+b22a1a2−a1b2i+b1a2i−b1b2i2
复数平方
z = ( a + b i ) z 2 = ( a + b i ) ( a + b i ) z 2 = ( a 2 − b 2 ) + 2 a b i z = (a + b\mathbf i) \\z^{2} = (a + b\mathbf i)(a + b\mathbf i)\\z^{2} = (a^{2} - b^{2}) + 2ab\mathbf i z=(a+bi)z2=(a+bi)(a+bi)z2=(a2−b2)+2abi
共轭复数
复数的共轭就是指把复数的虚数部分变成负的。
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z = (a + b\mathbf i)\\ z^{*} = (a - b\mathbf i)
z=(a+bi)z∗=(a−bi)
复数和它的共轭复数的乘积是:
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zz^{*} = (a + b\mathbf i)(a - b\mathbf i) = a^{2}-ab\mathbf i + ab\mathbf i + b^{2} = a^{2}+b^{2}
zz∗=(a+bi)(a−bi)=a2−abi+abi+b2=a2+b2
复数的绝对值
z = ( a + b i ) ∣ z ∣ = z z ∗ = ( a + b i ) ( a − b i ) = a 2 + b 2 z = (a + b\mathbf i)\\|z| = \sqrt {zz^{*}} = \sqrt {(a + b\mathbf i)(a - b\mathbf i)} = \sqrt {a^{2} + b^{2} } z=(a+bi)∣z∣=zz∗=(a+bi)(a−bi)=a2+b2
虚数的i次幂
i 0 = 1 i 1 = i i 2 = − 1 i 3 = i i 2 = − i i 4 = i 2 i 2 = 1 i 5 = i i 4 = i i 6 = i i 5 = i 2 = − 1 \mathbf i^{0} = 1 \\\mathbf i^{1} = \mathbf i \\ \mathbf i^{2} = -1 \\\mathbf i^{3} = \mathbf i\mathbf i^{2} = -i \\ \mathbf i^{4} = \mathbf i^{2}\mathbf i^{2} = 1 \\ \mathbf i^{5} = \mathbf i \mathbf i^{4} = i \\ \mathbf i^{6} = \mathbf i\mathbf i^{5} = \mathbf i^{2} = -1 i0=1i1=ii2=−1i3=ii2=−ii4=i2i2=1i5=ii4=ii6=ii5=i2=−1
虚数的-i次幂
i 0 = 1 i − 1 = − i i − 2 = − 1 i − 3 = i i − 4 = 1 i − 5 = − i i − 6 = − 1 \mathbf i^{0} = 1 \\ \mathbf i^{-1} = -i \\ \mathbf i^{-2} = -1 \\ \mathbf i^{-3} = i \\ \mathbf i^{-4} = 1 \\ \mathbf i^{-5} = -i \\ \mathbf i^{-6} = -1 i0=1i−1=−ii−2=−1i−3=ii−4=1i−5=−ii−6=−1
复数平面
我们可以将复数映射到2D网格平面-复数平面,只需要把实数映射到横轴、虚数映射到纵轴。
对一个复数乘以i,这个复数就在复数平面上旋转了90度。
随机地在复数平面上取一个点:
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p乘以i后得到q:
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q = p\mathbf i = (2+\mathbf i)\mathbf i = 2\mathbf i + \mathbf i^{2} = -1 + 2\mathbf i
q=pi=(2+i)i=2i+i2=−1+2i
q乘以i后得到r:
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r = q\mathbf i = (-1 + 2\mathbf i)\mathbf i = -\mathbf i + 2\mathbf i^{2} = -2 -\mathbf i
r=qi=(−1+2i)i=−i+2i2=−2−i
r乘以i后得到s:
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s = r\mathbf i = (-2 - \mathbf i)\mathbf i = -2\mathbf i-\mathbf i^{2} = 1 - 2\mathbf i
s=ri=(−2−i)i=−2i−i2=1−2i
s乘以i后得到t:
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t = s\mathbf i = (1-2\mathbf i)\mathbf i = \mathbf i - 2\mathbf i^{2} = 2 + \mathbf i
t=si=(1−2i)i=i−2i2=2+i
用复数表示旋转数
定义
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q表示复数平面上任意角度的旋转:
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q = cos\theta + \mathbf i sin\theta
q=cosθ+isinθ
定义复平面上初始坐标
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\begin{array}{rcl} pq & = & (a+bi)(\cos\theta+i\sin\theta) \\ a^{\prime}+b^{\prime}i & = & a\cos\theta-b\sin\theta+(a\sin\theta+b\cos\theta)i \end{array}
pqa′+b′i==(a+bi)(cosθ+isinθ)acosθ−bsinθ+(asinθ+bcosθ)i
用矩阵表示为:
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\begin{bmatrix} a^{\prime} & -b^{\prime} \\ b^{\prime} & a^{\prime} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix} \cos\theta & -\sin\theta \\ \sin\theta & \cos\theta \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix}a & -b \\b & a \end{bmatrix}
[a′b′−b′a′]=[cosθsinθ−sinθcosθ][ab−ba]
这是复平面上点绕原点逆时针旋转任意角度的方法。
四元数
四元数在复数的基础上额外增加两个虚数,从而把这些概念拓展到3维空间。
2.1 四元数的一般形式
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q=s+xi+yj+zk~~s,x,y,z\in\mathbb{R}
q=s+xi+yj+zk s,x,y,z∈R
也可以用有序对的形式,来表示四元数:
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q=[s,\mathbf{v}]~~s\in\mathbb{R}, \mathbf{v}\in\mathbb{R}^3\\q=[s,x\mathbf{i}+y\mathbf{j}+z\mathbf{k}]~~s,x,y,z\in\mathbb{R}
q=[s,v] s∈R,v∈R3q=[s,xi+yj+zk] s,x,y,z∈R
2.2 四元数本身的性质
- i 2 = j 2 = k 2 = i j k = − 1 \mathbf i^{2} = \mathbf j^{2} = \mathbf k^{2} = \mathbf i\mathbf j\mathbf k = -1 i2=j2=k2=ijk=−1
- i j = k j k = i k i = j \mathbf i \mathbf j = \mathbf k \ \ \ \mathbf j \mathbf k = \mathbf i \ \ \ \mathbf k \mathbf i = \mathbf j ij=k jk=i ki=j
- j i = − k k j = − i i k = − j \mathbf j \mathbf i = -\mathbf k \ \ \ \mathbf k \mathbf j = -\mathbf i \ \ \ \mathbf i \mathbf k = -\mathbf j ji=−k kj=−i ik=−j
你可能已经注意到了,i、j、k之间的关系非常像笛卡尔坐标系下单位向量的叉积规则:
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\mathbf x\times \mathbf y = \mathbf z \ \ \ \mathbf y\times \mathbf z = \mathbf x \ \ \ \mathbf z\times \mathbf x = \mathbf y \\ \mathbf y\times \mathbf x = -\mathbf z \ \ \ \mathbf z\times \mathbf y = -\mathbf x \ \ \ \mathbf x\times \mathbf z = -\mathbf y
x×y=z y×z=x z×x=yy×x=−z z×y=−x x×z=−y
- 实四元数: 一个实四元数是一个虚部向量为零向量的四元数: q = [ s , 0 ] q = [s,\mathbf {0}] q=[s,0]
- 纯四元数: 一个纯四元数是一个实部为零的四元数: q = [ 0 , v ] q = [0,\mathbf {v}] q=[0,v]
- 单位四元数: 它是一个 s = 0 , v s=0,\mathbf{v} s=0,v为单位向量的四元数。单位四元数可以表示三维空间中任意的一个旋转。
2.3 四元数的操作
2.3.1 四元数的加减
q a = [ s a , a ] q b = [ s b , b ] q a + q b = [ s a + s b , a + b ] q a − q b = [ s a − s b , a − b ] \begin{array}{rcl}q_a & = & [s_a,\mathbf{a}] \\ q_b & = & [s_b,\mathbf{b}] \\ q_a+q_b & = & [s_a+s_b,\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b}] \\ q_a-q_b & = & [s_a-s_b,\mathbf{a}-\mathbf{b}]\end{array} qaqbqa+qbqa−qb====[sa,a][sb,b][sa+sb,a+b][sa−sb,a−b]
2.3.2 四元数的乘积(叉乘)
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\begin{array}{rcl}q_a & = & [s_a,\mathbf{a}] \\ q_b & = & [s_b,\mathbf{b}] \\ q_{a}q_{b} & = & [s_{a},\mathbf{a}][s_{b},\mathbf{b}] \\ & = & (s_{a}+x_{a}i+y_{a}j+z_{a}k)(s_{b}+x_{b}i+y_{b}j+z_{b}k) \\ & = & (s_{a}s_{b}-x_{a}x_{b}-y_{a}y_{b}-z_{a}z_{b}) \\ & & +(s_{a}x_{b}+s_{b}x_{a}+y_{a}z_{b}-y_{b}z_{a})i \\ & & +(s_{a}y_{b}+s_{b}y_{a}+z_{a}x_{b}-z_{b}x_{a})j \\ & & +(s_{a}z_{b}+s_{b}z_{a}+x_{a}y_{b}-x_{b}y_{a})k\end{array}
qaqbqaqb=====[sa,a][sb,b][sa,a][sb,b](sa+xai+yaj+zak)(sb+xbi+ybj+zbk)(sasb−xaxb−yayb−zazb)+(saxb+sbxa+yazb−ybza)i+(sayb+sbya+zaxb−zbxa)j+(sazb+sbza+xayb−xbya)k
其中:
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\mathbf{a} = x_{a}\mathbf{i}+y_{a}\mathbf{j}+z_{a}\mathbf{k} \\ \mathbf{b} = x_{b}\mathbf{i}+y_{b}\mathbf{j}+z_{b}\mathbf{k}
a=xai+yaj+zakb=xbi+ybj+zbk
若用有序对形式来表示四元数乘积:
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[s_{a},\mathbf{a}][s_{b},\mathbf{b}]=[s_{a}s_{b}-\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b},s_{a}\mathbf{b}+s_{b}\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b}]
[sa,a][sb,b]=[sasb−a⋅b,sab+sba+a×b]
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\begin{array}{rcl}\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b} & = & x_{a}x_{b}+y_{a}y_{b}+z_{a}z_{b} \\ \mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b} & = & (y_{a}z_{b}-y_{b}z_{a})\mathbf{i}+(z_{a}x_{b}-z_{b}x_{a})\mathbf{j}+(x_{a}y_{b}-x_{b}y_{a})\mathbf{k}\end{array}
a⋅ba×b==xaxb+yayb+zazb(yazb−ybza)i+(zaxb−zbxa)j+(xayb−xbya)k
四元数乘积的结果依然为四元数
2.3.3 四元数的数乘
q = [ s , v ] λ q = λ [ s , v ] = [ λ s , λ v ] \begin{array}{rcl}q & = & [s,\mathbf{v}] \\ \lambda{q} & = & \lambda[s,\mathbf{v}] \\ & = & [\lambda{s},\lambda\mathbf{v}]\end{array} qλq===[s,v]λ[s,v][λs,λv]
2.3.4 四元数的模长
q a = [ s a , v a ] ∣ ∣ q a ∣ ∣ = s 2 + v 2 s a 2 + x a 2 + y a 2 + z a 2 \begin{array}{rcl}q_a & = & [s_a,\mathbf{v_a}] \\ ||q_a|| & = & \sqrt{s^2+v^2}\\ &&\sqrt{s_a^2+x_a^2+y_a^2+z_a^2}\end{array} qa∣∣qa∣∣==[sa,va]s2+v2sa2+xa2+ya2+za2
2.3.5 共轭四元数
共轭四元数的计算,就是将四元数的虚向量取反:
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\begin{array}{rcl}q & = & [s,\mathbf{v}] \\ q^* & = & [s,-\mathbf{v}]\end{array}
qq∗==[s,v][s,−v]
四元数与自身的共轭四元数相乘会得到一个实四元数:
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\begin{array}{rcl}qq^* & = & [s,\mathbf{v}][s,-\mathbf{v}] \\ & = & [s^2-\mathbf{v}\cdot-\mathbf{v},-s\mathbf{v}+s\mathbf{v}+\mathbf{v}\times-\mathbf{v}] \\ & = & [s^2+\mathbf{v}\cdot\mathbf{v},\mathbf{0}] \\ & = & [s^2+v^2,\mathbf{0}]\end{array}
qq∗====[s,v][s,−v][s2−v⋅−v,−sv+sv+v×−v][s2+v⋅v,0][s2+v2,0]
2.3.6 四元数的逆
四元数的逆用
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q−1表示。要计算四元数的逆,需要用四元数的共轭四元数去除以四元数的范数的平方:
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q−1=∣∣q∣∣2q∗
特殊情况: 对于单位四元数,由于
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2.3.7 四元数的点乘
和向量的点积相似,我们也可以计算2个四元数的点积,只需要将各个对应的系数相乘,然后相加:
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+
z
2
k
]
q
1
⋅
q
2
=
s
1
s
2
+
x
1
x
2
+
y
1
y
2
+
z
1
z
2
\begin{array}{rcl}q_1 & = & [s_1,x_1\mathbf{i}+y_1\mathbf{j}+z_1\mathbf{k}] \\ q_2 & = & [s_2,x_2\mathbf{i}+y_2\mathbf{j}+z_2\mathbf{k}] \\ q_1{\cdot}q_2 & = & s_{1}s_{2}+x_{1}x_{2}+y_{1}y_{2}+z_{1}z_{2}\end{array}
q1q2q1⋅q2===[s1,x1i+y1j+z1k][s2,x2i+y2j+z2k]s1s2+x1x2+y1y2+z1z2
我们也可以利用四元数点积,来计算四元数之间的角度差:
cos
θ
=
s
1
s
2
+
x
1
x
2
+
y
1
y
2
+
z
1
z
2
∣
q
1
∣
∣
q
2
∣
\cos\theta=\frac{s_{1}s_{2}+x_{1}x_{2}+y_{1}y_{2}+z_{1}z_{2}}{|q_{1}||q_{2}|}
cosθ=∣q1∣∣q2∣s1s2+x1x2+y1y2+z1z2
两个单位四元数之间的角度值为:
cos
θ
=
s
1
s
2
+
x
1
x
2
+
y
1
y
2
+
z
1
z
2
\cos\theta=s_{1}s_{2}+x_{1}x_{2}+y_{1}y_{2}+z_{1}z_{2}
cosθ=s1s2+x1x2+y1y2+z1z2
2.4 用四元数来表示旋转
由于单位四元数可以表示三维空间中的任意一个旋转。假设存在初始点
p
p
p,经过旋转
q
q
q(四元数)后的的坐标为
p
′
p^{\prime}
p′。
为了将四元数作用于3D空间中的坐标点,首先需要将原坐标点转换为四元数形式:
p
=
[
0
,
v
]
T
=
[
0
,
x
,
y
,
z
]
T
p = [0,v]^T=[0,x,y,z]^T
p=[0,v]T=[0,x,y,z]T
计算出旋转变换后坐标点对应的四元数为:
p
′
=
q
p
q
−
1
p^{\prime} = qpq^{-1}
p′=qpq−1
p
′
p^{\prime}
p′对应的虚部
v
′
(
x
′
,
y
′
,
z
′
)
v^{\prime}(x^{\prime},y^{\prime},z^{\prime})
v′(x′,y′,z′),即变换后点在三维坐标系中的坐标值。
用四元数表示旋转: 即无冗余性,又没有奇异性。
2.5 四元数到其它旋转表示的转换
2.5.1 四元数转换到旋转向量
旋转向量的表示:
θ
n
\theta \bf{n}
θn
其中
n
\bf{n}
n为旋转轴的方向
[
n
x
,
n
y
,
n
z
]
[n_x,n_y,n_z]
[nx,ny,nz],
θ
\theta
θ为绕该旋转轴旋转的角度。
四元数的表示:
q
=
[
s
,
v
]
=
[
q
0
,
q
1
,
q
2
,
q
3
]
q = [s,\bf{v}]=[q_0,q_1,q_2,q_3]
q=[s,v]=[q0,q1,q2,q3]
θ
=
2
a
r
c
c
o
s
(
q
0
)
[
n
x
,
n
y
,
n
z
]
T
=
[
q
1
,
q
2
,
q
3
]
T
/
sin
θ
2
\theta = 2arccos (q_0)\\ [n_x,n_y,n_z]^T = [q_1,q_2,q_3]^T/{\sin{\frac{\theta}{2}}}
θ=2arccos(q0)[nx,ny,nz]T=[q1,q2,q3]T/sin2θ
2.5.2 四元数转换到旋转矩阵:
R = v v T + s 2 I + 2 s v ∧ + ( v ∧ ) 2 R = vv^T + s^2I+2sv^{\wedge}+{(v^{\wedge})}^2 R=vvT+s2I+2sv∧+(v∧)2