4. Compact Subspaces and Connected Subspaces of Rn

这一节回顾两个重要的概念：紧致集和联通集。由于本书主要讨论${\mathbf{R}}^n$上的情况，因此紧致和有界闭集是等价的，但本节练习中也提到了非${\mathbf{R}}^n$上的情况。
Theorem 4.1其实是很多书上紧致集的定义。
Theorem 4.2很简单，$\mathbf{R}$上闭区间是compact的。
Theorem 4.3说明在${\mathbf{R}}^n$上compact可以推出closed和bounded，推论是最大最小值定理。
Theorem 4.5是极值定理，说明compact区间上的连续函数的值域也是compact的（连续函数保留compact特性）
Theorem 4.6是$ϵ$邻域定理，如果$U$是包含紧致集$X$的一个开集，那么可以找到一个$X$的$ϵ$邻域包含在$U$中。
Theorem 4.7是一致连续定理，compact集上的连续函数是一致连续的。
Theorem 4.9说明在${\mathbf{R}}^n$上closed和bounded可以推出compact
Theorem 4.10说明$\mathbf{R}$上闭区间是联通的。
Theorem 4.11是介值定理。

Exercises

Exercise 1. Let ${\mathbf{R}}_{+}$ denote the set of positive real numbers.
( a ) Show that the continuous function $f:{\mathbf{R}}_{+}\to \mathbf{R}$ given by $f(x)=1/(1+x)$ is bounded but has neither a maximum value nor a minimum value.
( b ) Show that the continuous function $g:{\mathbf{R}}_{+}\to \mathbf{R}$ given by $g(x)=\sin (1/x)$ is bounded but does not satisfy the condition of uniform continuity on ${\mathbf{R}}_{+}$.
Solution:
(a) $x>0$ means $1+x>1$ and thus $f(x)<1$, also $f(x)>0$ is obvious, thus $0<f(x)<1$, and $f$ is bounded. Since $f({\mathbf{R}}_{+})=(0,1)$, $f$ has neither maximum value nor minimum value.
(b) It is obvious that $-1\le g(x)\le 1$. To see $g$ is not uniform continuous, let $\forall \delta >0$, choose $k\in {\mathbf{N}}^{+}$ such that $4k\delta >1$, if we let $x_1=1/2k\pi ,x_2=1/(2k\pi +\pi /2)$, then
$$|x_1-x_2|=\left|\frac{1}{2k\pi }-\frac{1}{2k\pi +\pi /2}\right|=\frac{\pi /2}{2k\pi (2k\pi +\pi /2)}=\frac{1}{4k(2k\pi +\pi /2)}<\frac{1}{4k}<\delta$$
but $|g(x_1)-g(x_2)|=|\sin (2k\pi )-\sin (2k\pi +\pi /2)|=1$.

Exercise 2. Let $X$ denote the subset $(-1,1)\times 0$ of ${\mathbf{R}}^2$, and let $U$ be the open ball $B(0;1)$ in ${\mathbf{R}}^2$, which contains $X$. Show there is no $ϵ>0$ such that the $ϵ$-neighborhood of $X$ in ${\mathbf{R}}^{\mathbf{n}}$ is contained in $U$.
Solution: Given any $ϵ>0$, the point $\mathbf{a}=(1-ϵ/2,0)\in X$, and $B(\mathbf{a},ϵ)$ is a $ϵ$-neighborhood of $X$, but for the point $\mathbf{b}=(1+ϵ/4,0)$, we have
$$\Vert \mathbf{b}-\mathbf{a}\Vert =3ϵ/4<ϵ⟹b\in B(\mathbf{a},ϵ),\Vert \mathbf{b}-0\Vert =1+ϵ/4>1⟹\mathbf{b}\notin B(0,1)=U$$
thus $B(\mathbf{a},ϵ)⊈U$.

Exercise 3. Let ${\mathbf{R}}^{\infty }$ be the set of all “infinite-tuples” $\mathbf{x}=(x_1,x_2,\dots )$ of real numbers that end in an infinite string of 0’s. Define an inner product on ${\mathbf{R}}^{\infty }$ by the rule $⟨x,y⟩=\sum x_i{y}_i$. (This is a funite sum, since all but finitely many terms vanish.) Let $\Vert \mathbf{x}-\mathbf{y}\Vert$ be the corresponding metric on ${\mathbf{R}}^{\infty }$. Define
$${\mathbf{e}}_i=(0,\dots ,0,1,0,\dots ,0,\dots )$$
where 1 appears in the $i^{th}$ place. Then the ${\mathbf{e}}_i$ form a basis for ${\mathbf{R}}^{\infty }$. Let $X$ be the set of all the points ${\mathbf{e}}_i$. Show that $X$ is closed, bounded and non-compact.
Solution: $X$ contains only isolated points, thus is closed. Since $\Vert {\mathbf{e}}_i\Vert =\sqrt{⟨{\mathbf{e}}_i,{\mathbf{e}}_i⟩}=1,\forall i$, $X$ is bounded.
To see $X$ is not compact, notice that $\Vert {\mathbf{e}}_i-{\mathbf{e}}_j\Vert =\sqrt{2},\forall i\ne j$, then $B({\mathbf{e}}_i,1)\cap X={\mathbf{e}}_i,\forall i$, the open sets { B ( e i , 1 ) : i ∈ N + } \{B(\mathbf{e}_i,1):i\in \mathbf{N}^+ \} {B(ei​,1):i∈N+} covers $X$, but no finite subcover of $X$ exists.

Exercise 4.
( a ) Show that open balls and open cubes in ${\mathbf{R}}^n$ are convex.
( b ) Show that (open and closed) rectangles in ${\mathbf{R}}^n$ are convex.
Solution:
( a ) Let $B(\mathbf{y},ϵ)$ be an open ball in ${\mathbf{R}}^n$, $C(\mathbf{y},ϵ)$ be an open cube in ${\mathbf{R}}^n$. First for any $\mathbf{a},\mathbf{b}\in B(\mathbf{y},ϵ)$, there is the relation $\Vert \mathbf{a}-\mathbf{y}\Vert <ϵ,\Vert \mathbf{b}-\mathbf{y}\Vert <ϵ$, thus if $\mathbf{x}=\mathbf{a}+t(\mathbf{b}-\mathbf{a}),0\le t\le 1$, then
$$\begin{array}{rl}\Vert \mathbf{x}-\mathbf{y}\Vert & =\Vert \mathbf{a}+t(\mathbf{b}-\mathbf{a})-\mathbf{y}\Vert =\Vert (1-t)(\mathbf{a}-\mathbf{y})+t(\mathbf{b}-\mathbf{y})\Vert \\ & \le (1-t)\Vert \mathbf{a}-\mathbf{y}\Vert +t\Vert \mathbf{b}-\mathbf{y}\Vert <ϵ\end{array}$$
which means $\mathbf{x}\in B(\mathbf{y},ϵ)$, thus $B(\mathbf{y},ϵ)$ is convex.
Next for any $a,b\in C(\mathbf{y},ϵ)$, there is the relation $|\mathbf{a}-\mathbf{y}|<ϵ,|\mathbf{b}-\mathbf{y}|<ϵ$, thus if $\mathbf{x}=\mathbf{a}+t(\mathbf{b}-\mathbf{a}),0\le t\le 1$, then
$$\begin{array}{rl}|\mathbf{x}-\mathbf{y}|& =|\mathbf{a}+t(\mathbf{b}-\mathbf{a})-\mathbf{y}|=|(1-t)(\mathbf{a}-\mathbf{y})+t(\mathbf{b}-\mathbf{y})|\\ & \le (1-t)|\mathbf{a}-\mathbf{y}|+t|\mathbf{b}-\mathbf{y}|<ϵ\end{array}$$
which means $\mathbf{x}\in C(\mathbf{y},ϵ)$, thus $C(\mathbf{y},ϵ)$ is convex.
( b ) If $Q$ is a rectangle in ${\mathbf{R}}^n$, we can write $Q=[c_1,d_1]\times \cdots \times [c_n,d_n]$, for any $a,b\in Q$, we write $a=(a_1,\dots ,a_n),b=(b_1,\dots ,b_n)$, then there is the relation
$$c_i\le a_i,b_i\le d_i,1\le i\le n$$
thus if $\mathbf{x}=\mathbf{a}+t(\mathbf{b}-\mathbf{a}),0\le t\le 1$, then $x_i=a_i+t(b_i-a_i)=(1-t)a_i+t{b}_i\in [c_i,d_i]$, so $\mathbf{x}\in Q$.
If $Q$ is an open rectangle in ${\mathbf{R}}^n$, the proof is very similar.