切向量，切空间，余切空间习题

1. Prove that the tangent space $T_{p}M$ is an n-dimensional vector space by showing that
   the tangent vectors { ∂ ∂ x i ∣ p } 1 ≤ i ≤ n \{\frac{\partial}{\partial x^i}\big|_p\}_{1\leq i \leq n} { ∂xi∂​∣∣​p​}1≤i≤n​ forms a basis.

$\text{Proof:}$

We know that $T_{p}M$ is the functional space: { X p ∣ X p  is linear funcitonal on  C ∞ ( M )  satisfies Leibniz rule } \{X_p|X_p \text{ is linear funcitonal on }C^{\infty}(M) \text{ satisfies Leibniz rule}\} { Xp​∣Xp​ is linear funcitonal on C∞(M) satisfies Leibniz rule} only need to show it has a finite basis.

$\forall f\in C^{\infty }(M)$, we have a general Taylor’s formula with remainder:
$$f(x)=f(p)+(x^i-p^i)\frac{\partial f}{\partial x^i}+g(x),x\in M$$
$X_p(g)=0,X_p(c)=0,\forall c\in \mathbb{R}$, since $p$ is second order root of $g(x)$ and $X_p$ satisfies Leibniz rule.
Thus, $$X_p(f)=X_p((x^i-p^i)\frac{\partial f}{\partial x^i})=X_p(x^i)\frac{\partial }{\partial x^i}{|}_p\cdot f$$ i.e. $X_p=X_p(x^i)\frac{\partial }{\partial x^i}{|}_p$, which means that $X_p$ can be represented in a linear combination of { ∂ ∂ x i ∣ p } 1 ≤ i ≤ n \{\frac{\partial}{\partial x^i}\big|_p\}_{1\leq i \leq n} { ∂xi∂​∣∣​p​}1≤i≤n​, and the coefficient is $X_p(x^i)$.

Next, we need to show { ∂ ∂ x i ∣ p } 1 ≤ i ≤ n \{\frac{\partial}{\partial x^i}\big|_p\}_{1\leq i \leq n} { ∂xi∂​∣∣​p​}1≤i≤n​ is linear independent:

Suppose $a_i\frac{\partial }{\partial x^i}{|}_p=\text{0}$, then $a_i\frac{\partial }{\partial x^i}{|}_p\cdot x^j=a_i{\delta }_{ij}=a_j=0,\forall 1\le j\le n$.

Thus $T_{p}M$ is an n-dimensional vector space, with basis {