3.4 Reprsentation of Transformations by Matrices

这一节通过Theorem 11和Theorem 12 将linear transformation和矩阵建立了一对一的关联，此外Theorem 13说明linear transformation的composition与矩阵乘法也有天然的联系。Theorem 14则说明在linear operator的情况下，同一个linear transformation不同basis的矩阵存在相似（similar）的关系，且这个导致相似的矩阵实质上就是一组基在另一组基下的矩阵。

Exercises

1.Let $T$ be the linear operator on $C^2$ defined by $T(x_1,x_2)=(x_1,0)$. Let $\mathfrak{B}$ be the stantard ordered basis for $C^2$ and let B ′ = { α 1 , α 2 } \mathfrak B'=\{\alpha_1,\alpha_2\} B′={α1​,α2​} be the ordered basis defined by ${\alpha }_1=(1,i),{\alpha }_2=(-i,2)$.
( a ) What is the matrix of $T$ relative to the pair $\mathfrak{B},{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }$?
( b ) What is the matrix of $T$ relative to the pair ${\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime },\mathfrak{B}$?
( c ) What is the matrix of $T$ in the ordered basis ${\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }$?
( d ) What is the matrix of $T$ in the ordered basis { α 2 , α 1 } \{\alpha_2,\alpha_1\} {α2​,α1​}?
Solution:
( a ) $T{ϵ}_1=2{\alpha }_1-i{\alpha }_2,T{ϵ}_2=0{\alpha }_1+0{\alpha }_2$, thus the matrix of $T$ relative to the pair $\mathfrak{B},{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }$ is $\left[\begin{array}{cc}2& 0\\ -i& 0\end{array}\right]$.
( b ) $T{\alpha }_1={ϵ}_1,T{\alpha }_2=-i{ϵ}_1$, thus the matrix of $T$ relative to the pair ${\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime },\mathfrak{B}$ is $\left[\begin{array}{cc}1& -i\\ 0& 0\end{array}\right]$.
( c ) $T{\alpha }_1=2{\alpha }_1-i{\alpha }_2,T{\alpha }_2=-2i{\alpha }_1-{\alpha }_2$, thus $[T{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}=\left[\begin{array}{cc}2& -2i\\ -i& -1\end{array}\right]$.
( d ) $T{\alpha }_2=-{\alpha }_2-2i{\alpha }_1,T{\alpha }_1=-i{\alpha }_2+2{\alpha }_1$, thus [ T ] { α 2 , α 1 } = [ − 1 − i − 2 i 2 ] [T]_{\{α_2,α_1\}}=\begin{bmatrix}-1&-i\\-2i&2\end{bmatrix} [T]{α2​,α1​}​=[−1−2i​−i2​].

2.Let $T$ be the linear transformation from $R^3$ into $R^2$ defined by
$$T(x_1,x_2,x_3)=(x_1+x_2,2x_3-x_1)$$
( a ) If $\mathfrak{B}$ is the standard ordered basis for $R^3$ and ${\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }$ is the standard ordered basis for $R^2$, what is the matrix of $T$ relative to the pair $\mathfrak{B},{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }$?
( b ) If B = { α 1 , α 2 , α 3 } \mathfrak B=\{\alpha_1,\alpha_2,\alpha_3\} B={α1​,α2​,α3​} and B ′ = { β 1 , β 2 } \mathfrak B'=\{\beta_1,\beta_2\} B′={β1​,β2​}, where
$$\begin{gathered} {\alpha }_1=(1,0,-1),{\alpha }_2=(1,1,1),{\alpha }_3=(1,0,0), \\ {\beta }_1=(0,1),{\beta }_2=(1,0) \end{gathered}$$
what is the matrix of $T$ relative to the pair $\mathfrak{B},{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }$?
Solution:
( a ) We let ${ϵ}_1,{ϵ}_2,{ϵ}_3$ be the standard ordered basis for $R^3$ and ${ϵ}_1^{\prime },{ϵ}_2^{\prime }$ be the standard ordered basis for $R^2$, then
$$T{ϵ}_1=(1,-1),T{ϵ}_2=(1,0),T{ϵ}_3=(0,2)$$
thus the matrix of $T$ relative to the pair ${\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime },\mathfrak{B}$ is
$$A=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 1& 0\\ -1& 0& 2\end{array}\right]$$
( b ) A direct calculation shows
$$T{\alpha }_1=(1,-3)=-3{\beta }_1+{\beta }_{2}T{\alpha }_2=(2,1)={\beta }_1+2{\beta }_2,T{\alpha }_3=(1,-1)=-{\beta }_1+{\beta }_2$$
thus the matrix of $T$ relative to the pair ${\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime },\mathfrak{B}$ is
$$A=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}-3& 1& -1\\ 1& 2& 1\end{array}\right]$$

3.Let $T$ be a linear operator on $F^n$, let $A$ be the matrix of $T$ in the standard ordered basis for $F^n$, and let $W$ be the subspace of $F^n$ spanned by the column vectors of $A$. What does $W$ have to do with $T$?
Solution: By the condition given, if we write $A=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}{A}_{11}& \cdots & A_{1n}\\ ⋮& \ddots & ⋮\\ A_{n1}& \cdots & A_{nn}\end{array}\right]$, then $T{ϵ}_j={\sum }_{i=1}^n{A}_{ij}{ϵ}_i=A_j$, the $j$-th column vector of $A$, thus if $W$ is spanned by $A_1,\dots ,A_n$, it is easy to see $W=\text{range }T$.

4.Let $V$ be a two-dimensional vector space over the field $F$, and let $\mathfrak{B}$ be an ordered basis for $V$. If $T$ is a linear operator on $V$ and
$$[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ c& d\end{array}\right]$$
prove that $T^2-(a+d)T+(ad-bc)I=0$.
Solution: We write B = { α 1 , α 2 } \mathfrak B=\{α_1,α_2\} B={α1​,α2​}, then for any $\alpha \in V$, we have $\alpha =x_1{\alpha }_1+x_2{\alpha }_2,x_1,x_2\in F$, notice that
$$[T{\alpha }_1{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}[{\alpha }_1{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ c& d\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}a\\ c\end{array}\right],$$
$$[T{\alpha }_2{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}[{\alpha }_2{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ c& d\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{c}0\\ 1\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}b\\ d\end{array}\right],$$
$$[T^2{\alpha }_1{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}[T{\alpha }_1{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ c& d\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{c}a\\ c\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}{a}^2+bc\\ ac+cd\end{array}\right],$$
$$[T^2{\alpha }_2{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}[T{\alpha }_2{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ c& d\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{c}b\\ d\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}ab+bd\\ bc+d^2\end{array}\right]$$
thus
$$\begin{array}{rl}& (T^2-(a+d)T+(ad-bc)I){\alpha }_1\\ & =T^2{\alpha }_1-(a+d)T{\alpha }_1+(ad-bc){\alpha }_1\\ & =(a^2+bc){\alpha }_1+(ac+cd){\alpha }_2-(a+d)(a{\alpha }_1+c{\alpha }_2)+(ad-bc){\alpha }_1\\ & =(a^2+bc-a^2-ad+ad-bc){\alpha }_1+(ac+cd-ac-cd){\alpha }_2\\ & =0\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{rl}& (T^2-(a+d)T+(ad-bc)I){\alpha }_2\\ & =T^2{\alpha }_2-(a+d)T{\alpha }_2+(ad-bc){\alpha }_2\\ & =(ab+bd){\alpha }_1+(bc+d^2){\alpha }_2-(a+d)(b{\alpha }_1+d{\alpha }_2)+(ad-bc){\alpha }_2\\ & =(ab+bd-ab-bd){\alpha }_1+(bc+d^2-ad-d^2+ad-bc){\alpha }_2\\ & =0\end{array}$$
Now we have $(T^2-(a+d)T+(ad-bc)I){\alpha }_1=(T^2-(a+d)T+(ad-bc)I){\alpha }_2=0$, and so
$$\begin{array}{rl}& (T^2-(a+d)T+(ad-bc)I)\alpha \\ & =(T^2-(a+d)T+(ad-bc)I)(x_1{\alpha }_1+x_2{\alpha }_2)\\ & =x_1(T^2-(a+d)T+(ad-bc)I){\alpha }_1+x_2(T^2-(a+d)T+(ad-bc)I){\alpha }_2\\ & =0\end{array}$$

5.Let $T$ be the linear operator on $R^3$, the matrix of which in the standard ordered basis is
$$A=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 2& 1\\ 0& 1& 1\\ -1& 3& 4\end{array}\right]$$
Find a basis for the range of $T$ and a basis for the null space of $T$.
Solution: Using Exercise 3 we know the range of $T$ is spanned by the column vectors of $A$, using elementary column operations we have
$$A=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 2& 1\\ 0& 1& 1\\ -1& 3& 4\end{array}\right]\to \left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 1\\ -1& 5& 5\end{array}\right]\to \left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0\\ -1& 5& 0\end{array}\right]$$
so a basis for the range of $T$ is $(1,0,-1),(0,1,5)$, notice that $T{ϵ}_3-T{ϵ}_1=T{ϵ}_2-2T{ϵ}_1$, thus
$$T({ϵ}_3+{ϵ}_1-{ϵ}_2)=T(1,-1,1)=0$$
and the dimension of the null space of $T$ is $1$, so a basis for the null space of $T$ is $(1,-1,1)$.

6.Let $T$ be the linear operator on $R^2$ defined by
$$T(x_1,x_2)=(-x_2,x_1)$$
( a ) What is the matrix of $T$ in the standard ordered basis for $R^2$?
( b ) What is the matrix of $T$ in the ordered basis B = { α 1 , α 2 } \mathfrak B=\{\alpha_1,\alpha_2\} B={α1​,α2​}, where ${\alpha }_1=(1,2)$ and ${\alpha }_2=(1,-1)$?
( c ) Prove that for every real number $c$ the operator $(T-cI)$ is invertible.
( d ) Prove that if $\mathfrak{B}$ is any ordered basis for $R^2$ and $[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=A$, then $A_{12}{A}_{21}\ne 0$.
Solution:
( a ) $T{ϵ}_1=(0,1)={ϵ}_2,T{ϵ}_2=(-1,0)=-{ϵ}_1$, so the matrix of $T$ in the standard ordered basis for $R^2$ is $\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& -1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right]$.
( b ) We have
$$T{\alpha }_1=(-2,1)=-\frac{1}{3}{\alpha }_1-\frac{5}{3}{\alpha }_2,T{\alpha }_2=(1,1)=\frac{2}{3}{\alpha }_1+\frac{1}{3}{\alpha }_2$$
thus
$$[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=\left[\begin{array}{cc}-1/3& 2/3\\ -5/3& 1/3\end{array}\right]$$
( c ) The matrix of $T-cI$ in the standard ordered basis for $R^2$ is $\left[\begin{array}{cc}-c& -1\\ 1& -c\end{array}\right]$, thus
$$(T-cI){ϵ}_1=(-c,1),(T-cI){ϵ}_2=(-1,-c)$$
since $(-c,1),(-1,-c)$ are linearly independent for any $c\in R$, thus a basis of $R^2$, this means $T-cI$ is invertible.
( d ) Let B ′ = { ϵ 1 , ϵ 2 } \mathfrak B'=\{ϵ_1,ϵ_2\} B′={ϵ1​,ϵ2​}, then $[T{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}=\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& -1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right]$, given any $\mathfrak{B}$, we can find an invertible $P$ s.t.
$$[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=A=P[T{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}{P}^{-1}$$
we can assume $P=\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ c& d\end{array}\right]$, then $P^{-1}=\frac{1}{ad-bc}\left[\begin{array}{cc}d& -b\\ -c& a\end{array}\right]$, obviously $a,b,c,d$ cannot be all zero.
$$\begin{array}{rl}A& =\frac{1}{ad-bc}\left[\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ c& d\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& -1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{cc}d& -b\\ -c& a\end{array}\right]\\ & =\frac{1}{ad-bc}\left[\begin{array}{cc}b& -a\\ d& -c\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{cc}d& -b\\ -c& a\end{array}\right]\\ & =\frac{1}{ad-bc}\left[\begin{array}{cc}bd+ac& -b^2-a^2\\ d^2+c^2& -bd-ac\end{array}\right]\end{array}$$
thus $A_{12}{A}_{21}=-\frac{(a^2+b^2)(c^2+d^2)}{ad-bc}\ne 0$.

7.Let $T$ be the linear operator on $R^3$ defined by
$$T(x_1,x_2,x_3)=(3x_1+x_3,-2x_1+x_2,-x_1+2x_2+4x_3)$$.
( a ) What is the matrix of $T$ in the standard ordered basis for $R^3$?
( b ) What is the matrix of $T$ in the ordered basis { α 1 , α 2 , α 3 } \{\alpha_1,\alpha_2,\alpha_3\} {α1​,α2​,α3​}, where ${\alpha }_1=(1,0,1),{\alpha }_2=(-1,2,1),{\alpha }_3=(2,1,1)$?
( c ) Prove that $T$ is invertible and give a rule for $T^{-1}$ like the one which defines $T$.
Solution:
( a ) The matrix of $T$ in the standard ordered basis for $R^3$ is $\left[\begin{array}{ccc}3& 0& 1\\ -2& 1& 0\\ -1& 2& 4\end{array}\right]$.
(b) We form $P$ where P j = [ α j ] { ϵ 1 , ϵ 2 , ϵ 3 } P_j=[α_j ]_{\{ϵ_1,ϵ_2,ϵ_3\}} Pj​=[αj​]{ϵ1​,ϵ2​,ϵ3​}​, it is easy to see $P=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& -1& 2\\ 0& 2& 1\\ 1& 1& 1\end{array}\right]$, and we perform
$$\begin{array}{rl}\left[\begin{array}{cccccc}1& -1& 2& 1& 0& 0\\ 0& 2& 1& 0& 1& 0\\ 1& 1& 1& 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right]& \to \left[\begin{array}{cccccc}1& -1& 2& 1& 0& 0\\ 0& 2& 1& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 2& -1& -1& 0& 1\end{array}\right]\\ & \to \left[\begin{array}{cccccc}1& -1& 2& 1& 0& 0\\ 0& 2& 1& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& -2& -1& -1& 1\end{array}\right]\\ & \to \left[\begin{array}{cccccc}1& -1& 0& 0& -1& 1\\ 0& 2& 0& -1/2& 1/2& 1/2\\ 0& 0& 1& 1/2& 1/2& -1/2\end{array}\right]\\ & \to \left[\begin{array}{cccccc}1& 0& 0& -1/4& -3/4& 5/4\\ 0& 1& 0& -1/4& 1/4& 1/4\\ 0& 0& 1& 1/2& 1/2& -1/2\end{array}\right]\end{array}$$
thus
$$P^{-1}=1/4\left[\begin{array}{ccc}-1& -3& 5\\ -1& 1& 1\\ 2& 2& -2\end{array}\right]$$
and then
[ T ] { α 1 , α 2 , α 3 } = P − 1 [ T ] { ϵ 1 , ϵ 2 , ϵ 3 } P = 1 4 [ − 1 − 3 5 − 1 1 1 2 2 − 2 ] [ 3 0 1 − 2 1 0 − 1 2 4 ] [ 1 − 1 2 0 2 1 1 1 1 ] = 1 4 [ − 2 7 19 − 6 3 3 4 − 2 − 6 ] [ 1 − 1 2 0 2 1 1 1 1 ] = 1 4 [ 17 35 22 − 3 15 − 6 − 2 − 14 0 ] \begin{aligned}[T]_{\{α_1,α_2,α_3\}} &=P^{-1} [T]_{\{ϵ_1,ϵ_2,ϵ_3\}} P\\&=\frac{1}{4} \begin{bmatrix}-1&-3&5\\-1&1&1\\2&2&-2\end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix}3&0&1\\-2&1&0\\-1&2&4\end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix}1&-1&2\\0&2&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}\\&=\frac{1}{4} \begin{bmatrix}-2&7&19\\-6&3&3\\4&-2&-6\end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix}1&-1&2\\0&2&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}\\&=\frac{1}{4}\begin{bmatrix}17&35&22\\-3&15&-6\\-2&-14&0\end{bmatrix}\end{aligned} [T]{α1​,α2​,α3​}​​=P−1[T]{ϵ1​,ϵ2​,ϵ3​}​P=41​⎣⎡​−1−12​−312​51−2​⎦⎤​⎣⎡​3−2−1​012​104​⎦⎤​⎣⎡​101​−121​211​⎦⎤​=41​⎣⎡​−2−64​73−2​193−6​⎦⎤​⎣⎡​101​−121​211​⎦⎤​=41​⎣⎡​17−3−2​3515−14​22−60​⎦⎤​​
( c ) It is enough to prove [ T ] { ϵ 1 , ϵ 2 , ϵ 3 } [T]_{\{ϵ_1,ϵ_2,ϵ_3\}} [T]{ϵ1​,ϵ2​,ϵ3​}​ is invertible, this is true since
$${\left[\begin{array}{ccc}3& 0& 1\\ -2& 1& 0\\ -1& 2& 4\end{array}\right]}^{-1}=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}4/9& 2/9& -1/9\\ 8/9& 13/9& -2/9\\ -1/3& -2/3& 1/3\end{array}\right]$$
since we know [ T − 1 ] { ϵ 1 , ϵ 2 , ϵ 3 } = ( [ T ] { ϵ 1 , ϵ 2 , ϵ 3 } ) − 1 [T^{-1}]_{\{ϵ_1,ϵ_2,ϵ_3\}}=([T]_{\{ϵ_1,ϵ_2,ϵ_3\}})^{-1} [T−1]{ϵ1​,ϵ2​,ϵ3​}​=([T]{ϵ1​,ϵ2​,ϵ3​}​)−1, it’s able to describe
$$T^{-1}(x_1,x_2,x_3)=\left(\frac{4}{9}{x}_1+\frac{2}{9}{x}_2-\frac{1}{9}{x}_3,\frac{8}{9}{x}_1+\frac{13}{9}{x}_2-\frac{2}{9}{x}_3,-\frac{1}{3}{x}_1-\frac{2}{3}{x}_2+\frac{1}{3}{x}_3\right)$$

8.Let $\theta$ be a real number. Prove that the following two matrices are similar over the field of complex numbers:
$$\left[\begin{array}{cc}\cos \theta & -\sin \theta \\ \sin \theta & \cos \theta \end{array}\right],\left[\begin{array}{cc}{e}^{i\theta }& 0\\ 0& e^{-i\theta }\end{array}\right]$$
Solution: Let $T$ be the linear operator on $C^2$ which is represented by the first matrix in the standard ordered basis, then $T(1,0)=(\cos \theta ,\sin \theta ),T(0,1)=(-\sin \theta ,\cos \theta )$, let ${\alpha }_1=(i,1),{\alpha }_2=(1,i)$, then $T{\alpha }_1=i(\cos \theta ,\sin \theta )+(-\sin \theta ,\cos \theta )=(i\cos \theta -\sin \theta ,i\sin \theta +\cos \theta )=e^{i\theta }(i,1)=e^{i\theta }{\alpha }_1$
and similarly we can see $T{\alpha }_2=e^{-i\theta }{\alpha }_2$, it is easy to see { α 1 , α 2 } \{α_1,α_2 \} {α1​,α2​} are linearly independent, thus a basis of $C^2$, since [ T ] { α 1 , α 2 } = [ e i θ 0 0 e − i θ ] [T]_{\{α_1,α_2\}} =\begin{bmatrix}e^{iθ}&0\\0&e^{-iθ} \end{bmatrix} [T]{α1​,α2​}​=[eiθ0​0e−iθ​], the two matrices are similar, with $P=\left[\begin{array}{cc}i& 1\\ 1& i\end{array}\right]$ and
[ T ] { α 1 , α 2 } = P − 1 [ cos ⁡ ⁡ θ − sin ⁡ ⁡ θ sin ⁡ ⁡ θ cos ⁡ ⁡ θ ] P [T]_{\{α_1,α_2\}} =P^{-1} \begin{bmatrix}\cos⁡θ&-\sin⁡θ\\\sin⁡θ&\cos⁡θ \end{bmatrix}P [T]{α1​,α2​}​=P−1[cos⁡θsin⁡θ​−sin⁡θcos⁡θ​]P

9.Let $V$ be a finite-dimensional vector space over the field $F$ and let $S$ and $T$ be linear operators on $V$. We ask: When do there exist ordered bases $\mathfrak{B}$ and ${\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }$ for $V$ such that $[S{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[T{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}$? Prove that such bases exist if and only if there is an invertible linear operator $U$ on $V$ such that $T=US{U}^{-1}$.
Solution: If $[S{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[T{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}$, then let $U$ be the linear operator that carries $\mathfrak{B}$ onto ${\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }$, i.e., if we let
B = { a 1 , … , a n } , B ′ = { b 1 , … , b n } {\mathfrak B}=\{a_1,\dots,a_n \},\quad {\mathfrak B'}=\{b_1,\dots,b_n \} B={a1​,…,an​},B′={b1​,…,bn​}
and define $U$ by $U{a}_i=b_i,i=1,\dots ,n$. Then $U$ is invertible since it carries a basis onto another basis, and $U^{-1}{b}_i=a_i,i=1,\dots ,n$. If we denote $[S{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[T{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}=A=(A_{ij})$, then by definition we have $S{a}_j={\sum }_{i=1}^n{A}_{ij}{a}_i,T{b}_j={\sum }_{i=1}^n{A}_{ij}{b}_i$, so
$$\begin{array}{rl}US{U}^{-1}(b_j)& =US{a}_j=U\left(\sum _{i=1}^n{A}_{ij}{a}_i\right)\\ & =\sum _{i=1}^n{A}_{ij}U{a}_i=\sum _{i=1}^n{A}_{ij}{b}_i\\ & =T{b}_j,j=1,\dots ,n\end{array}$$
Since $US{U}^{-1}$ and $T$ are equal on a basis of $V$, we have $T=US{U}^{-1}$.
Conversely, if $T=US{U}^{-1}$ for some invertible $U$, we let B = { a 1 , … , a n } B=\{a_1,\dots,a_n \} B={a1​,…,an​} be an ordered basis for $V$, and B ′ = { U a 1 , … , U a n } \mathfrak B'=\{Ua_1,\dots,Ua_n \} B′={Ua1​,…,Uan​}, since $U$ is invertible, ${\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }$ is a basis for $V$. Notice that if $\alpha \in V$, then
$$\alpha =k_1{a}_1+\cdots +k_n{a}_n,k_1,\dots ,k_n\in F$$
thus $[\alpha {]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=\left[\begin{array}{c}{k}_1\\ ⋮\\ k_n\end{array}\right]$, and $U\alpha =k_{1}U{a}_1+\cdots +k_{n}U{a}_n$, so $[U\alpha {]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}=\left[\begin{array}{c}{k}_1\\ ⋮\\ k_n\end{array}\right]$, so we have $[\alpha {]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[U\alpha {]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}$, from this and the fact that $TU=US$ we can have
$$[S{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}[\alpha {]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[S\alpha {]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[US\alpha {]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}=[TU\alpha {]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}=[T{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}[U\alpha {]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}=[T{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}[\alpha {]}_{\mathfrak{B}}$$
and it must follow that $[S{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[T{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}$.
[Alternatively, one easier proof is using Theorem 14 and the consequence of Theorem 13, since in this case we have $[T{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}=[U^{-1}{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}[U{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[U^{-1}TU{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[U^{-1}(US{U}^{-1})U{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[S{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}$ ].

10.We have seen that the linear operator $T$ on $R^2$ defined by $T(x_1,x_2)=(x_1,0)$ is represented in the standard ordered basis by the matrix
$$A=\left[\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 0\end{array}\right].$$
This operator satisfies $T^2=T$. Prove that if $S$ is a linear operator on $R^2$ such that $S^2=S$, then $S=0$,or $S=I$, or there is an ordered basis $\mathfrak{B}$ for $R^2$ such that $[S{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=A$ (above).
Solution: If $S=0$ or $S=I$, we obviously have $S^2=S$, now suppose $S\ne 0,S\ne I$, but $S^2=S$, then it is able to find $\alpha ,\beta \in R^2$, s.t. $S\alpha \ne 0,S\beta \ne \beta$, since $S\alpha \in \text{range }S$, we have $\dim \text{range }S\ge 1$, also since $S(S\beta -\beta )=S^2\beta -S\beta =S\beta -S\beta =0$, we know $S\beta -\beta \in \text{null }S$, and $\dim \text{null }S\ge 1$, as we discuss in $R^2$, $\dim \text{range }S+\dim \text{null }S=2$, thus $\dim \text{range }S=\dim \text{null }S=1$. Now if we let $a=S\alpha ,b=S\beta -\beta$, and B = { a , b } {\mathfrak B}=\{a,b\} B={a,b}, then $\mathfrak{B}$ is an ordered basis for $R^2$ and $[S{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=A$.

11.Let $W$ be the space of all $n\times 1$ column matrices over a field $F$. If $A$ is an $n\times n$ matrix over $F$, then $A$ defines a linear operator $L_A$ on $W$ through left multiplicaition: $L_A(X)=AX$. Prove that every linear operator on $W$ is left multiplication by some $n\times n$ matrix, i.e., is $L_A$ for some $A$.
Now suppose $V$ is an $n$-dimensional vector space over the field $F$, and let $\mathfrak{B}$ be an ordered basis for $V$. For each $\alpha$ in $V$, define $U\alpha =[\alpha {]}_{\mathfrak{B}}$. Prove that $U$ is an isomorphism of $V$ onto $W$. If $T$ is a linear operator on $V$, then $UT{U}^{-1}$ is a linear operator on $W$. Accordingly, $UT{U}^{-1}$ is left multiplication by some $n\times n$ matrix $A$. What is $A$?
Solution: If $T$ is a linear operator on $W$, let B ′ = { ϵ 1 , … , ϵ n } \mathfrak B'=\{ϵ_1,\dots,ϵ_n \} B′={ϵ1​,…,ϵn​} be the standard basis on $W$, for each $X=\left[\begin{array}{c}{x}_1\\ ⋮\\ x_n\end{array}\right]$, we have $X={\sum }_{j=1}^n{x}_j{ϵ}_j$, and if we define $A:=[T{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}$, then $T(X)=T({\sum }_{j=1}^n{x}_j{ϵ}_j)={\sum }_{j=1}^n{x}_{j}T{ϵ}_j={\sum }_{j=1}^n{x}_j{\sum }_{i=1}^n{A}_{ij}{ϵ}_i={\sum }_{i=1}^n({\sum }_{j=1}^n{A}_{ij}{x}_j){ϵ}_i=AX$, thus $T=L_A$.
For the second question, let B = { a 1 , … , a n } \mathfrak B=\{a_1,\dots,a_n \} B={a1​,…,an​}, if $[\alpha {]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=[\beta {]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=\left[\begin{array}{c}{x}_1\\ ⋮\\ x_n\end{array}\right]$, then $\alpha =\beta ={\sum }_{j=1}^n{x}_j{a}_j$ , this shows $(U\alpha =U\beta )\Rightarrow (\alpha =\beta )$, so $U$ is injective. Also for any $X=\left[\begin{array}{c}{x}_1\\ ⋮\\ x_n\end{array}\right]\in W$, define $\alpha ={\sum }_{j=1}^n{x}_j{a}_j$, then $U\alpha =X$, thus $U$ is surjective, combined we show $U$ is an isomorphism.
If $T$ is a linear operator on $V$, then let $X=\left[\begin{array}{c}{x}_1\\ ⋮\\ x_n\end{array}\right],Y=\left[\begin{array}{c}{y}_1\\ ⋮\\ y_n\end{array}\right]\in W$, by definition we have
$$\begin{array}{rl}UT{U}^{-1}(cX+Y)& =UT(U^{-1}(cX+Y))\\ & =UT\left(\sum _{j=1}^n(c{x}_j+y_j)a_j\right)=U\left(T(\sum _{j=1}^n(c{x}_j+y_j)a_j)\right)\\ & =U\left(\sum _{j=1}^n(c{x}_j+y_j)T{a}_j\right)=\sum _{j=1}^n(c{x}_j+y_j)UT{a}_j\\ & =c\sum _{j=1}^n{x}_{j}UT{a}_j+\sum _{j=1}^n{y}_{j}UT{a}_j=c\left(UT\sum _{j=1}^n{x}_j{a}_j\right)+UT\left(\sum _{j=1}^n{y}_j{a}_j\right)\\ & =c(UT(U^{-1}(X)))+(UT(U^{-1}(Y)))\\ & =c(UT{U}^{-1})(X)+(UT{U}^{-1})(Y)\end{array}$$
thus $UT{U}^{-1}$ is a linear operator on $W$.
If $T$ is a linear operator on $V$, then let $C=[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}$, i.e. $T{a}_j={\sum }_{j=1}^n{C}_{ij}{a}_i$, in the first part we proved $A=[UT{U}^{-1}{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}$, to compute $A$, we see that $UT{U}^{-1}({ϵ}_j)=UT{a}_j=U({\sum }_{j=1}^n{C}_{ij}{a}_i)={\sum }_{j=1}^n{C}_{ij}U{a}_i={\sum }_{j=1}^n{C}_{ij}{ϵ}_j$ , thus $[UT{U}^{-1}{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}=C=[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}$, or $A=[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}$.

12.Let $V$ be an $n$-dimensional vector space over the field $F$, and let B = { α 1 , … , α n } \mathfrak B=\{\alpha_1,\dots,\alpha_n\} B={α1​,…,αn​} be an ordered basis for $V$.
( a ) According to Theorem 1, there is a unique linear operator $T$ on $V$ such that
$$T{\alpha }_j={\alpha }_{j+1},j=1,\dots ,n-1,T{\alpha }_n=0.$$
What is the matrix $A$ of $T$ in the ordered basis $\mathfrak{B}$?
( b ) Prove that $T^n=0$ but $T^{n-1}\ne 0$.
( c ) Let $S$ be any linear operator on $V$ such that $S^n=0$ but $S^{n-1}\ne 0$. Prove that there is an ordered basis ${\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }$ for $V$ such that the matrix of $S$ in the ordered basis ${\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }$ is the matrix $A$ of part (a).
( d ) Prove that if $M$ and $N$ are $n\times n$ matrices over $F$ such that $M^n=N^n=0$ but $M^{n-1}\ne 0\ne N^{n-1}$, then $M$ and $N$ are similar.
Solution:
( a ) A direct computation shows $A=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& \dots & 0\\ 1& 0& & \\ & \ddots & \ddots & \\ 0& & 1& 0\end{array}\right]$.
( b ) We have $T^k{\alpha }_{n+1-k}=0,k=1,\dots ,n$, thus $T^n=0$, but $T^{n-1}{\alpha }_1={\alpha }_n\ne 0$.
( c ) It is able to choose $\alpha$ s.t. $S^{n-1}\alpha \ne 0$ but $S^n\alpha =0$, notice $\alpha \ne 0$, and { α , S α , … , S n − 1 α } \{α,Sα,\dots,S^{n-1}α\} {α,Sα,…,Sn−1α} is linearly independent, for if we have
$$k_1\alpha +k_{2}S\alpha +\cdots +k_n{S}^{n-1}\alpha =0$$
then $S^{n-1}(k_1\alpha +k_{2}S\alpha +\cdots +k_n{S}^{n-1}\alpha )=k_1{S}^{n-1}\alpha =0$, thus $k_1=0$, the above becomes
$$k_{2}S\alpha +\cdots +k_n{S}^{n-1}\alpha =0$$
then $S^{n-2}(k_{2}S\alpha +\cdots +k_n{S}^{n-1}\alpha )=k_2{S}^{n-1}\alpha =0$, thus $k_2=0$, continue this step we eventually have $k_1=\cdots =k_n=0$. Thus we can define B ′ = { α , S α , … , S n − 1 α } \mathfrak B'=\{α,Sα,\dots,S^{n-1} α\} B′={α,Sα,…,Sn−1α}, and $[S{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }}=A$.
( d ) Let $T$ and $S$ be linear operators which satisfies $[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=M,[S{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=N$, in which B = { ϵ 1 , … , ϵ n } {\mathfrak B}=\{ϵ_1,\dots,ϵ_n \} B={ϵ1​,…,ϵn​}. From ( c ) we can find two ordered basis ${\mathfrak{B}}_1$ and ${\mathfrak{B}}_2$ s.t. $[T{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}_1}=[S{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}_2}=A$, by Theorem 14, let $P$ be the $n\times n$ matrix with columns $P_j=[{ϵ}_j{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}_1}$, and $Q$ be the $n\times n$ matrix with columns $Q_j=[{ϵ}_j{]}_{{\mathfrak{B}}_2}$, then
$$M=[T{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=P^{-1}AP,N=[S{]}_{\mathfrak{B}}=Q^{-1}AQ$$
thus $M=P^{-1}QN{Q}^{-1}P=(Q^{-1}P{)}^{-1}N(Q^{-1}P)$.

13.Let $V$ and $W$ be finite-dimensional vector spaces over the field $F$ and let $T$ be a linear transformation from $V$ into $W$. If
B = { α 1 , … , α n }  and  B ′ = { β 1 , … , β m } \mathfrak B=\{\alpha_1,\dots,\alpha_n\}\text{ and }\mathfrak B'=\{\beta_1,\dots,\beta_m\} B={α1​,…,αn​} and B′={β1​,…,βm​}
are ordered base for $V$ and $W$, respectively, define the linear transformations $Ep,q$ as in the proof of Theorem 5: $E^{p,q}({\alpha }_i)={\delta }_{iq}{\beta }_p$. Then the $Ep,q,1\le p\le m,1\le q\le n$, form a basis for $L(V,W)$, and so
$$T=\sum _{p=1}^m\sum _{q=1}^n{A}_{pq}{E}^{p,q}$$
for certain scalars $A_{pq}$ (the coordinates of $T$ in this basis for $L(V,W)$). Show that the matrix $A$ with entries $A(p,q)=A_{pq}$ is precisely the matrix of $T$ relative to the pair $\mathfrak{B},{\mathfrak{B}}^{\prime }$.
Solution: $T{\alpha }_j=({\sum }_{p=1}^m{\sum }_{q=1}^n{A}_{pq}{E}^{p,q})({\alpha }_j)={\sum }_{p=1}^m{\sum }_{q=1}^n{A}_{pq}{E}^{p,q}({\alpha }_j)={\sum }_{p=1}^m{\sum }_{q=1}^n{A}_{pq}{\delta }_{jq}{\beta }_p={\sum }_{p=1}^m{A}_{pj}{\beta }_p$, and the conclusion follows.